Survival of Micro-organisms in Cryostorage of Human Sperm

The authors describe the clinical application of semen cryostorage, survival of micro-organism during cryostorage procedures and the risk of cross-contamination.     

Application of sperm sorting and associated reproductive technology for wildlife management and conservation

Efforts toward the conservation and captive breeding of wildlife can be enhanced by sperm sorting and associated reproductive technologies such as sperm cryopreservation and artificial insemination (AI). Sex ratio management is of particular significance to species which naturally exist in female-dominated social groups. A bias of the sex ratio towards females of these species will greatly assist in maintaining socially cohesive groups and minimizing male-male aggression. Another application of this technology potentially exists for endangered species, as the preferential production of females can enable propagation of those species at a faster rate. The particular assisted reproductive technology (ART) used in conjunction with sperm sorting for the production of offspring is largely determined by the quality and quantity of spermatozoa following sorting and preservation processes. Regardless of the ART selected, breeding decisions involving sex-sorted spermatozoa should be made in conjunction with appropriate genetic management. Zoological-based research on reproductive physiology and assisted reproduction, including sperm sorting, is being conducted on numerous terrestrial and marine mammals. The wildlife species for which the technology has undergone the most advance is the bottlenose dolphin. AI using sex-sorted fresh or frozen-thawed spermatozoa has become a valuable tool for the genetic and reproductive management of captive bottlenose dolphins with six pre-sexed calves, all of the predetermined sex born to date.     

Effect of cryopreservation on the frequency of chromosomal abnormalities and sex ratio in human sperm

The effects of cryopreservation on the frequency and type of chromosomal abnormalities in human sperm were investigated. Employing a technique that enables direct visualization of human sperm chromosomes following in vitro penetration of hamster oocytes, sperm samples from 10 normal men were examined before and after freezing in liquid nitrogen. A total of 1,960 sperm karyotypes were analyzed, 1,132 before freezing and 828 after freezing. There was no significant difference in the frequency of structural chromosomal anomalies (10.5% prefreeze vs. 8.5% postfreeze), but there was a significant decrease in the frequency of numerical abnormalities (5.2% prefreeze vs. 3.0% postfreeze). However, there was a large excess of hypohaploid complements compared with hyperhaploid complements, suggesting that the hypohaploid complements were caused by technical artefact. A conservative estimate of aneuploidy, derived by doubling the hyperhaploid frequencies, did not differ before (0.4%) and after (0.4%) freezing. There was no evidence for interdonor variability in response to sperm cryopreservation for total chromosomal abnormalities, structural abnormalities, and sex ratios. The sex ratios were also not affected by cryopreservation and did not differ significantly from the theoretical 50%. It is concluded that cryopreservation does not affect the frequencies of chromosomal abnormalities or alter the sex ratio in human sperm, provided that an adequate cryoprotective buffer and freezing system is employed.     

Hybridization of tiger grouper (Epinephelus fuscoguttatus ♀) x giant grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus ♂) using cryopreserved sperm

Using Ringer solution as extender, the present study examined the protective effect of dimethyl sulphoxide (Me₂SO; 8-12%, v/v) on the cryopreservation of giant grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus) sperm. The cryopreserved sperm was then successfully applied in interspecific hybridization with tiger grouper (E. fuscoguttatus). Higher motility (90.56 ± 6.58%) and fertilization rate (69.61 ± 4.83%) was achieved in 10% Me₂SO with Ringer solution as extender (dilution ratio 1:1), which should no significant difference in comparison with fresh sperm (95.88 ± 1.64% and 73.10 ± 1.28%). There were no statistical differences in both fertilization and hatching rates between hybrid and non-hybrid tiger grouper by using cryopreserved sperm for fertilization, but malformation rate of the hybrid was higher than non-hybrid (17%) (P < 0.05). Survival rate of the hybrid was lower than that of the controls at 15 days post hatching (23% vs 48%). However, hybrids showed survival rate equal to the controls at the end of the 60-day study period. Hybridization of E. fuscoguttatus x E. lanceolatus was successfully achieved using cryopreserved sperm from giant grouper. The cryopreservation of giant grouper sperm and its application in hybridization provided a technical support for further grouper breeding work.     

Sperm concentration at freezing affects post-thaw quality and fertility of ram semen

We have investigated the effect of sperm concentration in the freezing doses 200, 400, 800, and 1600 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹ on the post-thaw quality and fertility of ram semen. Semen was collected from seven adult Churra rams by artificial vagina during the breeding season. The semen was diluted in an extender (TES-Tris-fructose, 20% egg yolk, and 4% glycerol), to a final concentration of 200, 400, 800, or 1600 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹ and frozen. Doses were analyzed post-thawing for motility (computer-assisted sperm analysis system [CASA]), viability, and acrosomal status (fluorescence probes propidium iodide [PI]/peanut agglutinin conjugated with fluorescein thiocyanate (PNA-FITC), SYBR-14/PI [Invitrogen; Barcelona, Spain] and YO-PRO-1/PI [Invitrogen; Barcelona, Spain]). Total motility and velocity were lower for 1600 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹ doses, while progressive motility and viability were lower both for 800 and 1600 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹. The proportion of viable spermatozoa showing increased membrane permeability (YO-PRO-1+) rose in 800 and 1200 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹. Intrauterine inseminations were performed with the 200, 400, and 800 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹ doses at a fixed sperm number (25 × 10⁶ per uterine horn) in synchronized ewes. Fertility (lambing rate) was similar for semen frozen at 200 (57.5%) or 400 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹ (54.4%), whereas it was significantly lower for 800 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹ (45.5%). In conclusion, increasing sperm concentration in cryopreserved semen, at least at 800 × 10⁶ mL⁻¹ and more, adversely affects the postthawing quality and fertility of ram semen.     

精子冷冻保存技术及研究进展

精子冷冻是辅助生殖技术的基础,能够有效的保存有价值的基因资源。文章回顾了近些年来国内外精子冷冻保存的重要研究成果,分析了精子的来源、冷冻预处理、冷冻和解冻方法、防冻剂的选择及其加入去除方式的选择等因素对精子冷冻效果的影响。文章还总结了精子冷冻效果的评价方法,展望精子冷冻技术的发展方向和应用前景。     

Use of amides as cryoprotectants in extenders for frozen sperm of tambaqui, Colossoma macropomum

Amides were tested as cryoprotectants in comparison with glycerol and DMSO (more traditional cryoprotectants) for recovery of Colossoma macropomum (tambaqui fish) sperm. Milt was extended in Beltsville Thawing Solution, then frozen with the addition of 2%, 5%, 8%, or 11% of: (1) dimethylacetamide (DMA), (2) dimethylformamide (DMF), (3) methylformamide (MF), or with 5% glycerol or 10% dimethylsulfoxide. Fertilization rates were greatest (P < 0.001) with amides; 8% DMF (91.6 ± 1.3%), 5% DMF (88.9 ± 1.6%), and 8% MF (83.0 ± 1.6%), which did not significantly differ among themselves, when compared with glycerol (51.6 ± 2.4%) and DMSO (61.9 ± 3.1%). The best hatching rates (P < 0.001) also occurred for 5% or 8% DMF and 8% MF (79.1 ± 3.1, 87.6 ± 1.5, and 74.8 ± 3.0, respectively) and were also similar (P > 0.05). For such treatments, both fertilization and hatching rates were similar (P > 0.05) to those with fresh sperm (91.7 ± 1.4 and 87.4 ± 1.4, respectively). The best sperm motility across extenders (at least 55.7%) was with 5%, 8%, and 11% DMF (P < 0.001). Those same treatments, along with 11% MF, provided the longest (P < 0.001) period of motility (at least 1 min). The greatest sperm integrity (more than 54%) was with 5% and 11% MF and with DMA and DMF at all tested concentrations (P < 0.001). The greatest (P < 0.001) sperm viability (at least 31%) was for 5%, 8%, and 11% DMA, and with 8% and 11% MF, and also for DMF at all tested concentrations. Sperm DNA integrity was best (more than 50%) for 2%, 5%, and 8% MF and for DMA and DMF at all concentrations (P < 0.001), whereas 2% DMA, 11% MF, 11% DMF, and the three amides at both 5% and 8% yielded the highest mitochondrial functionality (at least 44%; P < 0.001); thus, 8% MF and both 5% and 8% DMF were the cryoprotectants with the best postthaw quality for C. macropomum sperm.     

DNA fragmentation in chicken spermatozoa during cryopreservation

Semen cryopreservation is fundamental both for the practice of artificial insemination, and for the conservation of genetic resources in cryobanks; nevertheless, there is still not an efficient standard freezing procedure assuring a steady and suitable level of fertility in fowl, and consequently there is no systematic use of frozen semen in the poultry industry. This study examined changes in motility (CASA), cell membrane integrity (Ethidium Bromide (EtBr) exclusion procedure and stress test) and DNA fragmentation (neutral comet assay) in fowl spermatozoa before, during and after cryopreservation and storage at −196 °C. An optimized comet assay for chicken semen was studied and applied to the analyses. Semen collected from 18 Mericanel della Brianza (local Italian breed) male chicken breeders was frozen in pellets and thawed in a water bath at 60 °C. Measurements were performed on fresh semen soon after dilution, after equilibration with 6% dimethylacetamide at 4 °C (processed semen) and after thawing. Sperm DNA damage occurred during cryopreservation of chicken semen and the proportion of spermatozoa with damaged DNA significantly increased from 6.2% in fresh and 6.4% in processed semen to 19.8% in frozen-thawed semen. The proportion of DNA in the comet tail of damaged spermatozoa was also significantly affected by cryopreservation, with an increase found from fresh (26.3%) to frozen-thawed (30.9%) sperm, whereas processed semen (30.1%) didn't show significant differences. The proportion of total membrane damaged spermatozoa (EtBr exclusion procedure) did not increase by 4 °C equilibration time, and greatly and significantly increased by cryopreservation; the values recorded in fresh, processed and frozen semen were 2.9, 5.6, and 66.7% respectively. As regards the proportion of damaged cells in the stress test, all values differed significantly (7.1% fresh semen, 11.7% processed semen, 63.7% frozen semen). Total motility was not affected by equilibration (52.1% fresh semen, 51.9% processed semen), whereas it decreased significantly after cryopreservation (19.8%). These results suggest a low sensitivity of frozen-thawed chicken spermatozoa to DNA fragmentation, therefore it should not be considered as a major cause of sperm injuries during cryopreservation.     

Frozen-thawed rhinoceros sperm exhibit DNA damage shortly after thawing when assessed by the sperm chromatin dispersion assay

This study reports on the successful validation (via in situ nick translation and neutral comet assay) of the equine Sperm-Halomax kit as an appropriate methodology for the assessment of sperm DNA fragmentation in three species of rhinoceros. Rhinoceros sperm nuclei with fragmented DNA (validated using in situ nick translation) were evident as large halos with dispersed DNA fragments, whereas those with nonfragmented DNA displayed small halos of nondispersed DNA within the microgel. There was a high correlation (r) of 0.974 (R² value = 0.949; P < 0.01; n = 16) between the respective assessments of the Sperm Chromatin Dispersion test (SCDt) and the neutral comet assay. Application of the SCDt to determine the DNA fragmentation dynamics of rhinoceros (n = 6) sperm frozen in liquid nitrogen vapor and incubated postthaw at 37 °C for up to 48 h to mimic in vitro conditions in the female reproductive tract, revealed an increase (P = 0.001) in DNA damage, as soon as 4 h after the start of incubation. Linear regression equations were calculated for all six rhinoceroses over the first 6 h of incubation and revealed individual animal variation. Freshly collected and incubated (37 °C) rhinoceros (n = 3) sperm had no increase in the basal level of DNA fragmentation for up to 48 h, indicating that the cryopreservation of rhinoceros sperm in liquid nitrogen vapor, as used in this study, appeared to result in freeze-thaw DNA damage.     

几种冷冻稀释液与单胺类防冻剂对中缅树鼩精子冷冻存活率的影响

该文实验精子采自昆明地区经笼养驯化的树鼩(Tupaia belangeri),检测其冷冻前后运动度、顶体完整率以及检测部分冷冻精子的受精能力。实验一:选用8种已报道的冷冻稀释液TTE、TCG、TCF、TTG、BWW、BTS、DM、SR稀释鲜精,并添加0.4mol/LDMSO,4℃预冷平衡2h后,TTE、DM和SR稀释液的精子的运动度与鲜精无差别(P>0.05),其余处理组均显著下降(P<0.05)。冷冻复苏后,各组的运动度显著低于预冷平衡处理后的运动度(P<0.05);DM组的复苏运动度显著高于其他稀释液组(P<0.05),BWW组最低(P<0.05)。对于顶体完整率,与鲜精相比,4℃平衡2h后,TTE和DM组精子的顶体完整率显著高于BWW、BTS和SR组(P<0.05)。冷冻复苏后,DM组精子的顶体完整率显著高于其它(除了TTE)冷冻组(P<0.05)。实验二:在DM稀释液基础上分别添加4种浓度0.2、0.4、0.8和1.2mol/L的二甲基甲酰胺(DF)、甲酰胺(F)、二甲乙酰胺(DA)和乙酰胺(A)以及0.4mol/LDMSO,经过预冷平衡处理后,与鲜精相比,各防冻剂组的精子运动度没有下降(P>0.05);冷冻解冻后,各冷冻组精子的运动度显著低于预冷平衡处理后的精子运动度(P<0.05);0.8mol/LDF和0.4mol/LDMSO组精子的运动度显著高于其它冷冻组(P<0.05)。对于顶体完整率,预冷平衡处理后各高浓度组的比率显著下降;冷冻复苏后,0.4mol/LF和0.4mol/LDF组精子的顶体完整率相对较高。实验三,人工授精实验中,DM+0.8mol/LDF冷冻精子的受精率为16.7%,DM+0.4mol/LDMSO的受精率为50.0%。以上实验结果提示,含卵黄的非离子冷冻稀释液对树鼩精子冷冻保护效果好,但单胺类防冻剂的防冻效果还需进一步深入研究。     

Split-sample comparison of directional and liquid nitrogen vapour freezing method on post-thaw semen quality in white rhinoceroses (Ceratotherium simum simum and Ceratotherium simum cottoni)

To increase the quality of cryopreserved sperm in white rhinoceros, the liquid nitrogen vapour (LN vapour) freezing and the multi-thermal gradient directional freezing methods were compared. Sixteen white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum sp.) were electro-ejaculated. Semen samples were diluted with cryoextender (Tris, lactose, egg-yolk, DMSO) and aliquoted into straws for LN vapour freezing, and glass hollow tubes for directional freezing. The sperm quality was evaluated before and after freezing by assessing the following parameters: motility, morphologic state, acrosomal integrity and plasma membrane function and integrity (i.e. sperm viability) as defined by the hypo-osmotic swelling. Directional freezing improved the sperm viability by 5.6% (p < 0.005), progressive motility score by 34.7% and sperm motility index (SMI) by 8.1% (p < 0.005) versus LN vapour freezing. When data was categorized into groups of low (<19%), moderate (20-39%) and high (>40%) percentages of morphologically normal, directional freezing (DF) resulted in 31.4% less abnormal acrosomes for the low quality group as well as 18.7% increase in intact acrosomes and 10.9% increase in motility for the high quality group compared to LN vapour freezing (LN) (p < 0.01, p < 0.03, p < 0.01, respectively). LN showed a significant reduction in sperm head volume (5.7%, p < 0.05) compared to the prefreeze; whereas, no significant reduction in head volume was demonstrated after DF. Several additives (xanthenuric acid, cytochalasin D, potassium, EDTA) to the basic cryoextender provided no significant improvement in spermatozoal survival after directional freezing. In conclusion, directional freezing proved to facilitate higher gamete survival compared to LN vapour freezing. This is especially effective in ejaculates of low sperm quality and is important in endangered species where high quality semen donors are often not accessible. These results suggest that directional freezing could be valuable particularly for species with limited freezability of spermatozoa.     

Evaluation of gilthead sea bream, Sparus aurata, sperm quality after cryopreservation in 5 ml macrotubes

Cryopreservation produces several types of damage in spermatozoa, leading to fertility impairment. The reduction arises both from a lower viability post-thaw and from sublethal dysfunctions in some of the surviving cells. In the present study, we have analysed the effect of cryopreservation in 5 ml macrotubes on the quality of post-thawed gilthead sea bream sperm. Several standard sperm quality parameters were determined: pH and osmolarity of seminal plasma, sperm concentration, and motility. An exhaustive determination of sperm quality before and after cryopreservation was investigated. Several parameters related with spermatozoal status were determined: ATP content, plasma membrane integrity and functionality, mitochondrial functionality, and sperm fertility. Our results demonstrated that gilthead sea bream spermatozoa suffer several types of damage after freezing/thawing. The percentage of viable cells slightly decreased after cryopreservation, however plasma membrane was affected by cryopreservation, since cells could not resist the hyperosmotic shock. Mitochondrial status was affected by cryopreservation since there was a decrease in the parameters of sperm motility, ATP content (3.17 nmol ATP/10(5) spermatozoa to 1.7 nmol ATP/10(5) spermatozoa in 1:20 frozen samples) and an increase of the percentage of cells with mitochondrial depolarized membranes (11% for fresh and 27% for 1:20 frozen samples). Fertility rate was similar either using fresh or frozen/thawed sperm (77 and 75% hatched larvae, respectively).     

Effect of antioxidants resveratrol and quercetin on in vitro evaluation of frozen ram sperm

The objective was to assess the effects of the antioxidants resveratrol and quercetin on frozen-thawed ram sperm. Semen samples (which exceeded minimum standards) from four mature crossbreed Santa Inês rams were pooled and aliquots of each pool were diluted in Tris-egg yolk-glycerol, with the addition of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 μg/mL of resveratrol and quercetin in Experiment 1 and Experiment 2, respectively. In Experiment 1, the proportion of sperm with a high mitochondrial membrane potential was greater (P < 0.02) in the control group than in resveratrol 20 μg/mL group. In Experiment 2, the proportion of sperm with high mitochondrial membrane potential was greater in the control group (P < 0.0001) than in the other experimental groups, and greater in the quercetin 5 μg/mL group (P < 0.05) than in the other quercetin-treated groups. Thus, addition of 5 to 20 μg/mL of either resveratrol or quercetin to the Tris-egg yolk-glycerol extender reduced sperm mitochondrial membrane potential.     

Effect of freezing–thawing process and quercetin on human sperm survival and DNA integrity

We aimed in the first part of our work to study the effect of cryopreservation on the human sperm DNA integrity and the activation of caspase 3, the main apoptosis indicator. In the second part, we were interested in testing the effect of quercetin, as an antioxidant, in preventing sperm damage during the freeze–thawing process. Seventeen semen samples were obtained from 17 men recruited for infertility investigations. Liquefied sperm was cryopreserved using spermfreeze®. Nine of the used samples were divided into two aliquots; the first one was cryopreserved with spermfreeze only (control) and the second one was cryopreserved with spermfreeze supplemented with quercetin to a final concentration of 50 μM. Sperm motility and viability were assessed according to WHO criteria. We used TUNEL assay and the Oxy DNA assay to assess sperm DNA integrity. Activated caspase 3 levels were measured in spermatozoa using fluorescein-labeled inhibitor of caspase (FLICA). Cryopreservation led to a significant increase in sperm DNA fragmentation, DNA oxidation and caspase 3 activation (p < 0.01). Supplementation of the cryopreservation medium with quercetrin induced a significant improvement in post thaw sperm parameters, compared to those of control, regarding sperm motility (p = 0.007), viability (p = 0.008) and DNA integrity (p = 0.02); however, it had no effect on caspase 3 activation (p = 0.3). We conclude that oxidative stress plays a major role in inducing sperm cryodamage but implication of apoptosis in this impairment requires further investigations. Quercetin could have protective effect during cryopreservation but further research is needed to confirm this effect.     

Conserved ram seminal plasma proteins bind to the sperm membrane and repair cryopreservation damage

Whole seminal plasma (SP) enhances the function and fertility of frozen/thawed ram sperm. The objective of the current study was to investigate whether SP proteins capable of binding to molecules from the sperm plasma membrane were conserved among ram breeds, and whether these proteins were sufficient to overcome cryopreservation-induced reductions in sperm quality. Whole ram SP, obtained from rams of various breeds, improved progressive motility of frozen/thawed sperm at all times evaluated (P < 0.05); however, it did not improve total motility (15 min, P = 0.480; 30 min, P = 0.764; and 45 min, P = 0.795). To identify SP proteins responsible for this effect, a new method was developed to retain SP proteins that bound specifically to the sperm membrane by immobilization of sperm membrane proteins. These proteins specifically bound to the sperm surface, especially the acrosomal region. Lactotransferrin, epididymal secretory protein E1, Synaptosomal-associated protein 29, and RSVP-20 were identified (mass spectrometry) in this fraction. The retained SP proteins fraction repaired ultrastructural damage of frozen/thawed sperm and, with the addition of fructose, significantly improved motility of frozen/thawed sperm. We concluded that SP proteins that bound to the sperm membrane were conserved among ram breeds, and that when added to frozen/thawed semen (along with an energy source), they repaired ram sperm damage and enhanced sperm motility.