Exploring the links between functional traits and cultural ecosystem services to enhance urban ecosystem management

Functional traits have been proposed as a more mechanistic way than species data alone to connect biodiversity to ecosystem processes and function in ecological research. Recently, this framework has also been broadened to include connections of traits to ecosystem services. While many links between traits and ecosystem processes/functions are easily and logically extended to regulating, supporting, and provisioning services, connections to cultural services have not yet been dealt with in depth. We argue that addressing this gap may involve a renegotiation of what have traditionally been considered traits, and a targeted effort to include and expand upon efforts to address traits-cultural ecosystem services links in traits research. Traits may also offer a better way to explore the recognition and appreciation of biodiversity. Drawing upon examples from outside the explicit traits literature, we present a number of potential connections between functional traits and cultural ecosystem services for attention in future research. Finally, we explore considerations and implications of employing a traits approach in urban areas, and examine how connections between traits and ecosystem services could be developed as indicators in a research and management context to generate a robust and resilient supply of ecosystem services.     

Linking biodiversity indicators,ecosystem functioning,provision of services and human well-being in estuarine systems: Application of a conceptual framework

Assuming that human well-being strongly relies on the services provided by well-functioning ecosystems, changes in the ecological functioning of any system can have direct and indirect effects on human welfare. Intensive land use and tourism have expanded in recent decades along coastal ecosystems, together with increasing demands for water, food and energy; all of these factors intensify the exploitation of natural resources. Many of the interrelations between ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services (ES) still require quantification in estuarine systems. A conceptual framework to assess such links in a spatially and temporally explicit manner is proposed and applied to the Mondego estuary (Portugal). This framework relies on three consecutive steps and discriminates among biodiversity structural components, ecosystem functioning and stability and the services provided by the ecosystem.Disturbances in abiotic factors were found to have a direct effect on biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the provision of ES. The observed changes in the species composition of communities had a positive effect on the ecosystem's productivity and stability. Moreover, the observed changes in the estuarine ES provision are likely to arise from changing structural and abiotic factors and in the present case from the loss or decline of locally abundant species. This study also indicates that linear relationships between biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and services provision are unlikely to occur in estuarine systems. Instead, cumulative and complex relations are observed between factors on both temporal and spatial scales. In this context, the results suggest several additional conclusions: (1) biodiversity and ecosystem functioning interaction with human well-being need to be incorporated into decision-making processes aimed at the conservative management of systems; (2) the institutional use of research results must be part of the design and implementation of sustainable management activities; and (3) more integrative tools/studies are required to account for the interactions of estuarine ecosystems with surrounding socio-economic activities. Therefore, when performing integrated assessments of ecosystem dynamics, it becomes essential to consider not only the effects of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning on services provision but also the effects that human well-being and ES provision may have on estuarine biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.The proposed framework implies taking into account both the functional and the commodities points of view upon natural ecosystems and by this representing a line of thought which will deserve further research to explore more in detail the conceptual links between biodiversity–ecosystem functioning–services provided.     

黄淮海湿地生态系统服务与生物多样性保护格局的耦合性

研究生物多样性格局与生态系统服务格局之间的空间耦合效应,探讨以生物多样性保育为核心目标的自然保护体系同时能多大程度满足对生态系统服务功能的维护和支撑,已成为自然保护领域新的热点关注问题。目前研究多限于陆域生态系统,其方法难以适用于湿地生态系统。以黄淮海湿地——这一高强度人类活动的区域为研究区,基于湿地生态系统的横向连接度、纵向连接度(2D)以及结合地下水的垂向连接度(3D),对黄淮海地区湿地具有的生态系统服务功能进行了空间评估和分析,识别出具有重要意义的生态系统服务功能区域,结合现有保护区分布情况进行空间分析,评价现有保护区对生态系统服务功能的支持程度,即生物多样性保护与生态系统服务功能重点区域的空间耦合性。研究结果表明:目前湿地保护区并未有效覆盖湿地生态系统关键区域,湿地生态系统服务关键格局也存在大量明显的保护空缺。同时,随着2D到3D延伸,保护区对生态系统服务功能的支持程度也稍有提高,这与系统保护规划中选择不同保护目标后保护规划格局发生变化的情况类似,而生态系统服务功能的"热点地区"(重要区域)与保护生物学中所指的物种保护的热点地区类似,这表明生态系统服务功能的规划和保护也可以借鉴保护生物学中系统保护规划的理论和方法,为后续研究提供参照。     

Perspectives on the link between ecosystem services and biodiversity: The assessment of the nursery function

The relationship between biodiversity and each ecosystem service or bundle of ecosystem services (e.g. win−win, win−lose or win−neutral) is an active field of research that requires structured and consistent information. The application of that research for conservation and decision-making can be hampered by the ambiguity found in the definition of the nursery function under the ecosystem service perspective. In this paper, we review how the role of nursery habitats is included in the ecosystem services literature, covering conceptual, biophysical and economic reflections. The role of ecosystems as nurseries is mostly analyzed in coastal environments. The main observation is that there is no consensus on the consideration of the nursery function as a service (e.g. which species or habitats) or on how to assess it (e.g. which indicators or valuation methods). After that review, we analyze three different interpretations given to the nursery function, namely the ecological, conservationist and economic point of view; and we distinguish between different types of assessment that may consider the nursery function.We conclude that the nursery function can be considered an ecosystem service on its own right when it is linked to a concrete human benefit and not when it is represented with indicators of general biodiversity or ecosystem condition. Thus, the analysis of the delivery of ecosystem services should be differentiated from the analysis of ecological integrity. Only with this distinction science may be able to quantify the link between biodiversity and ecosystem services and policy may be effective in halting biodiversity loss. Similar considerations could apply for other biodiversity constituents that may be treated as ecosystem services.     

The ecosystem functioning dimension in conservation: insights from remote sensing

An important goal of conservation biology is the maintenance of ecosystem processes. Incorporating quantitative measurements of ecosystem functions into conservation practice is important given that it provides not only proxies for biodiversity patterns, but also new tools and criteria for management. In the satellite era, the translation of spectral information into ecosystem functional variables expands and complements the more traditional use of satellite imagery in conservation biology. Remote sensing scientists have generated accurate techniques to quantify ecosystem processes and properties of key importance for conservation planning such as primary production, ecosystem carbon gains, surface temperature, albedo, evapotranspiration, and precipitation use efficiency; however, these techniques are still unfamiliar to conservation biologists. In this article, we identify specific fields where a remotely-sensed characterization of ecosystem functioning may aid conservation science and practice. Such fields include the management and monitoring of species and populations of conservation concern; the assessment of ecosystem representativeness and singularity; the use of protected areas as reference sites to assess global change effects; the implementation of monitoring and warning systems to guide adaptive management; the direct evaluation of supporting ecosystem services; and the planning and monitoring of ecological restorations. The approaches presented here illustrate feasible ways to incorporate the ecosystem functioning dimension into conservation through the use of satellite-derived information.     

Linking biodiversity to ecosystem function: implications for conservation ecology

We evaluate the empirical and theoretical support for the hypothesis that a large proportion of native species richness is required to maximize ecosystem stability and sustain function. This assessment is important for conservation strategies because sustenance of ecosystem functions has been used as an argument for the conservation of species. If ecosystem functions are sustained at relatively low species richness, then arguing for the conservation of ecosystem function, no matter how important in its own right, does not strongly argue for the conservation of species. Additionally, for this to be a strong conservation argument the link between species diversity and ecosystem functions of value to the human community must be clear. We review the empirical literature to quantify the support for two hypotheses: (1) species richness is positively correlated with ecosystem function, and (2) ecosystem functions do not saturate at low species richness relative to the observed or experimental diversity. Few empirical studies demonstrate improved function at high levels of species richness. Second, we analyze recent theoretical models in order to estimate the level of species richness required to maintain ecosystem function. Again we find that, within a single trophic level, most mathematical models predict saturation of ecosystem function at a low proportion of local species richness. We also analyze a theoretical model linking species number to ecosystem stability. This model predicts that species richness beyond the first few species does not typically increase ecosystem stability. One reason that high species richness may not contribute significantly to function or stability is that most communities are characterized by strong dominance such that a few species provide the vast majority of the community biomass. Rapid turnover of species may rescue the concept that diversity leads to maximum function and stability. The role of turnover in ecosystem function and stability has not been investigated. Despite the recent rush to embrace the linkage between biodiversity and ecosystem function, we find little support for the hypothesis that there is a strong dependence of ecosystem function on the full complement of diversity within sites. Given this observation, the conservation community should take a cautious view of endorsing this linkage as a model to promote conservation goals. Received: 2 September 1999 / Accepted: 26 October 1999     

Residents’ valuation of ecosystem services in a Mediterranean coastal dune ecosystem: The case of the Ritoque dunes in central Chile

Coastal dunes provide a variety of cultural and ecological ecosystem services to local communities. However, most of these ecosystems are globally threatened by anthropic factors. Chile is home to important dune ecosystems such as the emblematic Ritoque coastal dunes located in the hotspot for biodiversity conservation in central Chile where there is a delicate relationship between conservation and human development interests, among local communities and authorities. Here, we performed a choice experiment study to determined willingness to implement conservation measures in the Ritoque dunes. In particular, we assessed residents’ preferences for improvements of the current state of local ecosystem services such as scenic beauty, biodiversity and archaeological sites. Residents showed preferences for improvements in Ritoque coastal dunes’ ecosystem services, and a high willingness to pay for protecting biodiversity and archeological sites, rather than for recreational infrastructure. Our study highlights the importance of place-based research that specifically addresses residents and stakeholders’ conservation priorities, which could be used to design and implement effective conservation management strategies for coastal ecosystems and coastal cities near them.     

The importance of habitat productivity, stability and heterogeneity for spider species richness in coastal grey dunes along the North Sea and its implications for conservation

In this contribution, we report on patterns of spider species richness in large complexes of coastal grey dunes of northern France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Since grey dunes are considered a priority in Annex I of the EU Habitat Directive, conservation needs attention. Spider diversity is determined by the amount of nutrients available in grey dune patches. The richness of specific xerotherm species, however, is dependent only on the distance of the patches to the sea. Earlier investigation revealed that the richness of these species depends on the patch size. Since coastal dune management aims to focus on the conservation of dune-specific and xerotherm species, patch enlargement and grey dune restoration should receive priority attention and not internal grey dune management. Total spider richness and diversity is hence related to the functioning of the grey dune ecosystem. Eolic dynamics act as typical disturbance factors and are negatively related to species richness, as a result of the low but significant covariation with nutrient availability. The intermediate disturbance hypothesis is not applicable for spider diversity in grey dunes, possibly due to the narrow range of investigated environmental variation.     

Analysis of the tradeoffs between provisioning and regulating services from the perspective of varied share of net primary production in an alpine grassland ecosystem

Because ecosystems are complex, tradeoffs exist among supplies of multiple ecosystem services, especially between the provisioning and regulating services. In ecosystem processes, net primary production (NPP) is connected with many other processes such as respiration and evapotranspiration. As one key supporting service, NPP is also related to other provisioning and regulating services. This study introduces an analysis framework of ecosystem services tradeoffs from the perspective of varied share of NPP, in the alpine grassland ecosystem of Damxung County on the Tibetan plateau, China. Total NPP was divided into the share of NPP spent on supplying provisioning services and the share used in supporting regulating services. Tradeoffs between provisioning and regulating services were analyzed by quantifying the change of meat provisioning service and the remaining share of NPP used in other ways; the corresponding change in the share of NPP used to support regulating services was also analyzed and compared with other changes in regulating services, such as carbon sequestration and water conservation services. The results show, from 2000 to 2010, the meat provisioning service increased by 199%, but this was at a cost of additional livestock feeding, which used more NPP of the alpine grassland ecosystem. As a result, by 2010 the remaining NPP used for supporting regulating services shrank to 77% of the 2000 level, which was accompanied by a decrease in carbon sequestration and water conservation services by 90% and 67%, respectively. The analysis of tradeoffs from the perspective of variations in the share of NPP used for various services will contribute to the study of mechanisms involved in providing ecosystem services, interactions between the provisioning of various services, and will also help land managers improve the management of ecosystems.     

Land management implications for ecosystem services in a South African rangeland

In South Africa, restoration and sustainable management of historically overgrazed and degraded rangelands are promoted to increase biodiversity and ecosystem service provision. This study evaluates different land management scenarios in terms of ecosystem services in a South African rangeland, the Baviaanskloof catchment. As measured data were limited, we used simple models to quantify and map the effect of the different combination of agricultural, nature conservation and restoration practices on multiple ecosystem services. The land management scenarios were evaluated against management targets set for individual ecosystem services. Results highlight how the provision of ecosystem services is related to land management as unmanaged, pristine ecosystems provide a different mix of ecosystem services than ecosystems recently restored or managed as grazing lands. Results also indicate that historically overgrazed lands provide no forage, may retain 40% less sediment and have 38% lower biodiversity, while providing 60% more fuel wood and supplying two and half times more water (i.e. retaining less water), than pristine or restored lands. We conclude that a combination of light grazing, low input agriculture, nature conservation and restoration is the best for the sufficient provision of multiple ecosystem services. Applying such mixed management would improve biodiversity, ecotourism and maintain forage production and regulating services on farmers’ land. This management option also fits into and further optimizes local decision-makers’ vision regarding the future management of the area.     

我国区域尺度生态系统管理中的几个重要生态学命题

生态系统管理学是研究生态系统管理的理论与实践技术,相关政策和管理策略的综合性应用生态学。当前,综合研究全球或区域尺度生态系统管理模式及其相关的重大科学问题不公是人类社会可持续发展的迫切需要,也是生态系统管理学的重要发展方向和科学任务,为此,本文系统地论述了生态服务功能、可持续性、复杂性和不确定性的综合评价与生态学机制,自然资源保护、生态系统健康以及退化生态系统恢复的生态学基础,生态系统管理的基础生态学过程,生态系统适应性管理的理论与实践,生态系统网络研究,监测和成果集成,区域尺度生态系统管理的综合性专题研究等一系列重要生态学命题,讨论了这些生态学命题的国内外研究进展及其发展方向。     

Urban greenspace composition and landscape context influence natural enemy community composition and function

Conservation research has historically been aimed at preserving high value natural habitats, but urbanization and its associated impacts have prompted broader mandates that include the preservation and promotion of biodiversity in cities. Current efforts within urban landscapes aim to support biodiversity and diverse ecosystem services such as storm water management, sustainable food production, and toxin remediation. Arthropod natural enemies provide biocontrol services important for the ecosystem management of urban greenspaces. Establishing habitat for these and other beneficial arthropods is a growing area of urban conservation. Habitat design, resource inputs, management, and abiotic conditions shape the value of greenspace habitats for arthropods. In general, larger patches with diverse plant communities support a greater abundance and diversity of natural enemies and biocontrol services, yet opposing patterns or no effects have also been documented. The surrounding landscape is likely a contributor to this variation in natural enemy response to patch-scale habitat design and management. Looking across rural–urban landscape gradients, natural enemy communities shift toward dominance by habitat generalists and disturbance tolerant species in urban areas compared to rural or natural communities. These changes have been linked to variation in habitat fragmentation, plant productivity and management intensity. In landscape-scale studies focusing solely within cities, variables such as impervious surface area and greenspace connectivity affect the community assembly of natural enemies within a patch. Given these findings, a greater mechanistic understanding of how both the composition and spatial context of urban greenspaces influence natural enemy biodiversity–biocontrol relationships is needed to advance conservation planning and implementation.     

A regional perspective on the effects of human disturbance on the termites of Sundaland

The remains of the rainforests of Sundaland are threatened by logging,burning and conversion to agriculture. In this study theeffects of different levels of disturbance and recovery on termites wereexamined. This was carried out on a regional scale and incorporated sixdifferent disturbance effects. Termites were found to be strongly effected bydisturbance, particularly by complete removal of the forest canopy. Recoveryfrom severe disturbance is discussed and we find that completely cleared andfarmed land, when left fallow near to a source area of primary forest for over50 years, can completely recover its termite assemblage andassociated ecosystem services. Over larger areas termites do not recover fromdisturbance events for millennia. The conservation implications of our findingsare discussed, with reference to both the conservation of species and ofecosystem services. We propose that most Sundan termite species can be conservedin a relatively small area. However, termite composition and ecosystem processesthroughout the region may be altered forever, if current widespread rainforestdestruction is not halted.     

Spatially combining wood production and recreation with biodiversity conservation

Pine plantations established on former heathland are common throughout Western Europe and North America. Such areas can continue to support high biodiversity values of the former heathlands in the more open areas, while simultaneously delivering ecosystem services such as wood production and recreation in the forested areas. Spatially optimizing wood harvest and recreation without threatening the biodiversity values, however, is challenging. Demand for woody biomass is increasing but other pressures on biodiversity including climate change, habitat fragmentation and air pollution are intensifying too. Strategies to spatially optimize different ecosystem services with biodiversity conservation are still underexplored in the research literature. Here we explore optimization scenarios for advancing ecosystem stewardship in a pine plantation in Belgium. Point observations of seven key indicator species were used to estimate habitat suitability using generalized linear models. Based on the habitat suitability and species’ characteristics, the spatially-explicit conservation value of different forested and open patches was determined with the help of a spatially-explicit conservation planning tool. Recreational pressure was quantified by interviewing forest managers and with automated trail counters. The impact of wood production and recreation on the conservation of the indicator species was evaluated. We found trade-offs between biodiversity conservation and both wood production and recreation, but were able to present a final scenario that combines biodiversity conservation with a restricted impact on both services. This case study illustrates that innovative forest management planning can achieve better integration of the delivery of different forest ecosystem services such as wood production and recreation with biodiversity conservation.     

A computational approach to ecological and economic sustainable harvest management strategies in a multi-species context, with implications for cod recovery plans

Multi-species models consider interactions, particularly predation, between and within species. Traditional harvest management strategies, such as maximum sustainable yield do not account for these interactions. The exploitation of a single species can be maximised, but this does not mean that the entire ecosystem is being harvested sustainably or at its economic maximum. I present a computational technique (evolutionary algorithms) that can simultaneously optimise harvest management strategies of many species and can easily be modified to allow for factors such as stock recovery, sustainable yields or maximum levels of economic sustainable exploitation. I demonstrate that in an ecologically sustainably managed system where a stock is recovering, maximum economic yield is identical to the maximisation of yield by mass. These findings may have important implications for long term conservation aims and long term profits by fishers.     

Biodiversity loss and the taxonomic bottleneck: emerging biodiversity science

Human domination of the Earth has resulted in dramatic changes to global and local patterns of biodiversity. Biodiversity is critical to human sustainability because it drives the ecosystem services that provide the core of our life-support system. As we, the human species, are the primary factor leading to the decline in biodiversity, we need detailed information about the biodiversity and species composition of specific locations in order to understand how different species contribute to ecosystem services and how humans can sustainably conserve and manage biodiversity. Taxonomy and ecology, two fundamental sciences that generate the knowledge about biodiversity, are associated with a number of limitations that prevent them from providing the information needed to fully understand the relevance of biodiversity in its entirety for human sustainability: (1) biodiversity conservation strategies that tend to be overly focused on research and policy on a global scale with little impact on local biodiversity; (2) the small knowledge base of extant global biodiversity; (3) a lack of much-needed site-specific data on the species composition of communities in human-dominated landscapes, which hinders ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation; (4) biodiversity studies with a lack of taxonomic precision; (5) a lack of taxonomic expertise and trained taxonomists; (6) a taxonomic bottleneck in biodiversity inventory and assessment; and (7) neglect of taxonomic resources and a lack of taxonomic service infrastructure for biodiversity science. These limitations are directly related to contemporary trends in research, conservation strategies, environmental stewardship, environmental education, sustainable development, and local site-specific conservation. Today’s biological knowledge is built on the known global biodiversity, which represents barely 20% of what is currently extant (commonly accepted estimate of 10 million species) on planet Earth. Much remains unexplored and unknown, particularly in hotspots regions of Africa, South Eastern Asia, and South and Central America, including many developing or underdeveloped countries, where localized biodiversity is scarcely studied or described. "Backyard biodiversity", defined as local biodiversity near human habitation, refers to the natural resources and capital for ecosystem services at the grassroots level, which urgently needs to be explored, documented, and conserved as it is the backbone of sustainable economic development in these countries. Beginning with early identification and documentation of local flora and fauna, taxonomy has documented global biodiversity and natural history based on the collection of "backyard biodiversity" specimens worldwide. However, this branch of science suffered a continuous decline in the latter half of the twentieth century, and has now reached a point of potential demise. At present there are very few professional taxonomists and trained local parataxonomists worldwide, while the need for, and demands on, taxonomic services by conservation and resource management communities are rapidly increasing. Systematic collections, the material basis of biodiversity information, have been neglected and abandoned, particularly at institutions of higher learning. Considering the rapid increase in the human population and urbanization, human sustainability requires new conceptual and practical approaches to refocusing and energizing the study of the biodiversity that is the core of natural resources for sustainable development and biotic capital for sustaining our life-support system. In this paper we aim to document and extrapolate the essence of biodiversity, discuss the state and nature of taxonomic demise, the trends of recent biodiversity studies, and suggest reasonable approaches to a biodiversity science to facilitate the expansion of global biodiversity knowledge and to create useful data on backyard biodiversity worldwide towards human sustainability.     

生态系统生产总值核算:概念、核算方法与案例研究

生态系统产品与服务功能是人类生存与发展的基础。生态系统生产总值(GEP)可以定义为生态系统为人类福祉和经济社会可持续发展提供的产品与服务价值的总和,包括生产系统产品价值、生态调节服务价值和生态文化服务价值。生态系统生产总值核算的基本任务有3个,即核算生态系统产品与服务的功能量、确定生态系统产品与服务的价格、核算生态系统产品与服务的价值量。生态系统生产总值核算可以用于揭示生态系统为经济社会发展和人类福祉的贡献,分析区域之间的生态关联,评估生态保护成效和效益。以贵州省为例,探讨了生态系统生产总值核算的应用方法,评价了贵州省生态系统为贵州和其他地区人们福祉和支撑经济社会发展所提供的产品和服务及其经济价值总和。评价结果显示,贵州省2010年全省生态系统生产总价值为20013.46亿元,人均GEP 57526元,是当年该省国民生产总值和人均GDP的4.3倍。研究表明,生态系统生产总值的核算可以反映生态系统对经济社会发展的支撑作用,并为建立生态系统保护效益与成效的考核机制提供基础。     

集成生态系统服务与生物多样性的系统保护规划

生物多样性和生态系统服务的保护与可持续管理是当今世界面临的重大挑战之一,但如何判识与优化集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护对象的保护优先区网络,相关研究还很有限。针对“三江并流”区,选取珍稀濒危与特有动植物物种和自然植被类型作为生物多样性保护对象,以调节服务(碳存储、固碳和土壤保持)、文化服务(自然游憩)和供给服务(水源供给)为生态系统服务保护对象。应用系统保护规划方法,首先判识出单一生物多样性和生态系统服务保护优先区;然后,分析这些保护优先区间的相关关系,并选择与生物多样性正相关的生态系统服务类型,判识集成生态系统服务与生物多样性的保护优先区;最后,评估了集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护优先区在六类已建保护地中的保护状况。结果表明：(1)“三江并流”区多情景规划得到的生物多样性与生态系统服务保护优先区之间均呈正相关关系;(2)与分别针对生态系统服务和生物多样性的规划情景相比,集成生态系统服务与生物多样性保护优先区能够同时对两类保护对象提供最高的保护覆盖率;(3)集成生态系统服务和生物多样性保护优先区占研究区总面积的48.9%,其已建保护地覆盖率为32.5%,说明现有保护地体系仍存在保护...     

Impacts of species-led conservation on ecosystem services of wetlands: understanding co-benefits and tradeoffs

Biodiversity conservation organisations have recently begun to consider a wider ecosystem services context for their activities. While the literature suggests the potential of ‘win–win’ situations where biodiversity conservation and the delivery of ecosystem services overlap, empirical evidence is wanting. Here we explore the role that species-led management for the benefit of biodiversity in cultural landscapes can play in the delivery of wider ecosystem services. We use UK lowland wetlands as a case study and show how successful delivery of species-led conservation through management interventions relies on practices that can affect greenhouse gas fluxes, water quality and regulation, and cultural benefits. In these wetlands, livestock grazing has potentially large effects on water and greenhouse gas related services, but there is little scope to alter management without compromising species objectives. Likewise, there is little potential to alter reedbed management without compromising conservation objectives. There is some potential to alter woodland and scrub management, but this would likely have limited influence due to the relatively small area over which such management is practiced. The management of water levels potentially has large effects on provision of several services and there does appear to be some scope to align this objective with biodiversity objectives. A comprehensive understanding of the net costs and benefits to society of these interventions will require fine-grained research integrating ecological, economic and social science research. However, a less analytic understanding of the potential costs and benefits can highlight ways by which land management principally to achieve biodiversity conservation objectives might be modified to enhance delivery of other ecosystem services.     

Can biodiversity monitoring schemes provide indicators for ecosystem services?

Recently, the science and policy agenda on biodiversity moved to include ecosystem services assessments and it is recognised that for determining the effectiveness and progress of policy frameworks monitoring is crucial.Within European monitoring schemes, data is collected following different sampling protocols for a range of biodiversity or context related aspects; from EU-wide general land cover mapping to red list species within Annex I habitats. In this paper, we analysed field instructions of seven monitoring schemes on the extent to which they can provide data on the provision of ecosystem services and what additional information may be needed for future monitoring of ecosystem services.We compared seven monitoring schemes (i.e. CORINE Land Cover, Land Use Cover Area Survey (LUCAS), European Biodiversity Observation Network (EBONE), biodiversity monitoring on organic and low-input farming systems (BioBio), National Inventory of the Landscape of Sweden (NILS) and Pan-European Common Birds Monitoring (PECBM) and UK Butterfly monitoring (UK-BM)) by scoring the quality of recorded parameters and the adequacy of sampling protocols for ecosystem service monitoring.All the examined schemes were able to provide some parameters on ecosystem services, but the quality of the parameters on average did not exceed the level of qualitative data. Additionally, the divergence between the sampling designs of the schemes and the spatial characteristics of ecosystem services reduced the potential monitoring value of all schemes. Monitoring schemes including a range of sampling methods, scales and included the recording of data on habitats, such as EBONE, BioBio and NILS, provided the best data on the provision of ecosystem services.We conclude that improvement of the monitoring of ecosystem services is hindered by several knowledge gaps: (1) a robust definition and conceptual framework of ecosystem services; (2) the linkage between biodiversity and ecosystem services; and (3) the interpretation of monitoring data.In addition to ecosystem service monitoring, biodiversity monitoring unremittingly remains very important, at least to identify trade-offs between the management for services and the resulting biodiversity status.