Leaf epidermal features of Salix species (Salicaceae) and their systematic significance

? Premise of the study: The classification of the genus Salix has historically been intrinsically difficult due to its propensity toward plasticity and high variation in diagnostic morphological characters. We investigated leaf epidermal characteristics, focusing on the stomatal apparatus because it may provide critical insights into the evolution and taxonomy of Salix and its closely related genera. ? Methods: Light microscopy was used to examine the leaf epidermal features in 32 taxa of Salix. ? Key results: Characters such as shape, size, and density of stomatal complexes were very useful in differentiating Salix species. Variation in features of stomatal apparatus in Salix is wider than previously known. Moreover, the type of stomatal complex proved to be very helpful in discriminating Chosenia as members of the genus Salix. ? Conclusions: The results of the present study support the placement of Chosenia within Salix and the combining of subgenera Chamaetia and Vetrix because of similarities in their unique stomatal apparatus.     

柳属的分支系统学分析

基于61个广义的形态学性状,以杨属为外类群对柳属进行了分支系统学分析.经简约性分析,得到了21个同等简约的分支树,其严格一致树支持柳属为一个自然的分类群,但不支持将钻天柳属和心叶柳属从柳属中划分出去独立成属,也不支持对柳属进行属级水平上的细分,后两个结果得到孢粉学和分子系统学研究的支持.柳亚属为一个单系分支,皱纹柳亚属和黄花柳亚属也形成了一个单系分支.根据本研究的结果,建议将柳属划分为钻天柳亚属、柳亚属及黄花柳亚属3个亚属.由于较低的靴带支持率,其系统发育关系难于探讨.鉴于分支分析的一致性指数、保持性指数、各分支内部的支持率均不高,柳属的属下分类系统的划分有待进一步的研究.     

The typification and identity of Salix eriocephala Michx. (Salicaceae)

The lectotype ofS. eriocephala was selected from the vegetative specimens collected by Michaux in the Mississippi River valley in the fall of 1795. Its identity is the same as that which recently has been known asS. missouriensis orS. rigida var.vestita. Since these taxa are not specifically distinct fromS. rigida the nameS. eriocephala takes priority as the correct name for this wide-ranging North American species.     

Collection and storage of pollen from Salix (Salicaceae)

Genetic improvement of willows through traditional breeding can be facilitated by pollen collection and storage so that female flower receptivity need not be synchronized with pollen shed for breeding. Two experiments were completed to test the effectiveness of various organic solvents for willow pollen collection. In the first experiment, seven pollen collection treatments and an untreated control were tested with two willow clones. The other experiment tested three treatments that showed promise in the initial experiment and an untreated control with eight willow clones. Toluene and carbon tetrachloride were effective for pollen extraction, with average pollen germination percentages that were >15%, but both chemicals reduced pollen viability by 10-20% compared with an untreated control based on in vitro germination tests. Pollen extracted with carbon tetrachloride or toluene was successfully used in controlled pollination, and >100 new families were produced with this technique. Pollen viability remained high after 18 mo of storage at -20°C. Based on our results, toluene is the preferred solvent for future willow pollen extractions because it is as effective as carbon tetrachloride, is not a known carcinogen, and is less expensive.     

Eighteen microsatellite loci in Salix arbutifolia (Salicaceae) and cross-species amplification in Salix and Populus species

Salix arbutifolia is a riparian dioecious tree species that is of conservation concern in Japan because of its highly restricted distribution. Eighteen polymorphic loci of dinucleotide microsatellites were isolated and characterized. Among these, estimates of the expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.350 to 0.879. Cross-species amplification was successful at 9-13 loci among six Salix species and at three loci in one Populus species.     

青海柳属植物地理分布及其区系特点

通过野外调查和查阅大量标本及文献资料,对青海省柳属(SalixL.)植物地理分布和区系特征进行了研究。青海产柳属植物多达45种(含种以下5变种、1变型),隶属15个组(Sect.),分别占青藏高原组、种的100%、40.9%和我国组、种的40.5%、17.5%,居我国第4位。青海柳属植物主要分布于青海东部,包括祁连山系东段和青南高原东南部,垂直分布集中于海拔2000～4000m,是世界柳属植物海拔分布最高的地区之一。青海柳属植物区系特征表现在:(1)种类丰富;(2)多型性突出;(3)地理成分较复杂,以欧亚大陆温带分布成分和青藏高原分布成分为主,中国特有分布占有一定的地位;(4)特有现象不明显,仅占青海种数的8.9%;(5)两雄蕊或单雄蕊的进化类群占绝对优势,占青海种数的93.3%。青海柳属植物与邻近的东部(甘肃东部、陕西)和东南部(四川西部、西藏东部)地区联系密切。由于第三纪以来喜马拉雅和青藏高原不断抬升,形成了适应高寒和干旱环境的青海柳属植物的分布与区系特征。     

Ecological correlates of secondary sexual dimorphism in Salix glauca (Salicaceae)

The ecological causation hypothesis for secondary sexual dimorphism was tested in Salix glauca, a dioecious willow shrub. Plants growing in a Colorado Rocky Mountain (USA) krummholz mosaic of mesic and xeric patches were monitored for four consecutive years. Ecological causation is predicated on unique resource demands associated with sexual function. In S. glauca, seeds have twofold higher N and P concentrations compared to pollen. P, but not N, allocation costs differed between sexes at plant and flower scales. Ecological causation also predicts spatial segregation of sexes along underlying habitat gradients. In five populations of S. glauca, sexes displayed significant spatial segregation. The theory also predicts that sexes differ in performance across gradients of environmental stress or resource availability. Consistent with this hypothesis, females had lower drought tolerance than males under years of extreme aridity. Furthermore, over 10 years, annual shoot growth for females was greatest in mesic habitat patches, while males grew at a consistent rate regardless of habitat aridity. Because current shoot growth is correlated with future catkin production, habitat specialization likely provides a fitness payoff in females. Overall, this long-term study provides some of the strongest evidence to date for ecological causation of secondary sexual dimorphism in plants.     

柳属(杨柳科)五个Rudolf G(o)rz的植物名称后选模式指定

由于Rudolf Gorz在1935年《静生生物调查所汇报》（植物学）第6卷第1期“中国柳属增志”一文中对2新种、2新变种和1新变型植物名称发表时引证了2号或2号以上的标本,但没指定主模式。根据《国际植物命名法规》规则8．1、9．4．9．9,9．10和辅则9A．1、9A．2、9A．3、9A．4的精神,对这些名称作出后选模式指定。     

Genetically-controlled leaf traits in two chemotypes of Salix sachalinensis Fr. Schm (Salicaceae)

Salix sachalinensis has two chemotypes: one biosynthesises ampelopsin as a major component of low molecular weight phenolics in their leaves (A-type), and the other biosynthesises β-d-glucopyranose-1-trans-p-coumarate (PG1) and β-d-glucopyranose-1-trans-cinnamate (PG2) in addition to ampelopsin (AP-type). We investigated phenotypic and genetic variations and clonal repeatabilities of the pubescence density, leaf mass per area (LMA), and concentrations of total phenolics, condensed tannin, ampelopsin, PG1 and PG2. Leaves of wild A-type trees contained significantly higher concentrations of total phenolics and ampelopsin, and lower concentration of condensed tannin than those of wild AP-type trees. In the greenhouse experiment that compared leaf traits between cloned trees obtained from wild chemotypes, there were significant between-type variations in the leaf phenolic concentrations, pubescence density, and LMA. Since chemotypes of cloned trees in the greenhouse were the same as those of wild parent trees, chemotype can be considered as a genetically controlled property. There were also significant within-chemotype variations in the pubescence density, LMA, total phenolics, ampelopsin, PG1, and PG2 concentrations, but not in concentration of condensed tannin for either chemotypes. Genetic variation of leaf traits except for LMA in AP-type was significant. PG1 and PG2 exhibited the highest clonal repeatabilities (0.73 and 0.78, respectively). Thus, the ability to produce and the amount of production of PG1 and PG2 are genetically controlled.     

环纹矮柳(杨柳科)的后选模式指定及形态描述订正

环纹矮柳(Salix annulifera C. MarquandAiry Shaw)的模式标本材料F. K. Ward 5870包括2个完全不同的种。根据深圳法规的相应条款,在此指定F. K. Ward 5870 (K-000335077)为S. annulifera的后选模式;将F. K. Ward 5870 (K-000335083)从S. annulifera中排除,并鉴定为藏南柳(S. austrotibetica N. Chao)。此外,对环纹矮柳的形态描述进行了相应的订正。     

Spatial genetic structure and clonal diversity in an alpine population of Salix herbacea (Salicaceae)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Many alpine plant species combine clonal and sexual reproduction to minimize the risks of flowering and seed production in high mountain regions. The spatial genetic structure and diversity of these alpine species is strongly affected by different clonal strategies (phalanx or guerrilla) and the proportion of generative and vegetative reproduction. METHODS: The clonal structure of the alpine plant species Salix herbacea was investigated in a 3 x 3 m plot of an alpine meadow using microsatellite (simple sequence repeat; SSR) analysis. The data obtained were compared with the results of a random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis. KEY RESULTS: SSR analysis, based on three loci and 16 alleles, revealed 24 different genotypes and a proportion of distinguishable genotypes of 0.18. Six SSR clones were found consisting of at least five samples, 17 clones consisting of more than two samples and seven single genotypes. Mean clone size comprising at least five samples was 0.96 m(2), and spatial autocorrelation analysis showed strong similarity of samples up to 130 cm. RAPD analysis revealed a higher level of clonal diversity but a comparable number of larger clones and a similar spatial structure. CONCLUSIONS: The spatial genetic structure as well as the occurrence of single genotypes revealed in this study suggests both clonal and sexual propagation and repeated seedling recruitment in established populations of S. herbacea and is thus suggestive of a relaxed phalanx strategy.     

The presence or absence of Rogadius asper (Cuvier 1829) in Australia (Scorpaeniformes: Platycephalidae)

Ichthyological Research -     

Second and third trophic level effects of differences in plant species reflect dietary specialisation of herbivores and their endoparasitoids

In natural populations, plants demonstrate an array of indirect and direct defence strategies that help to protect them from their herbivores and pathogens. Indirect defences include the release of odours that attract the natural enemies of herbivores, whereas direct defences may include the production of secondary compounds, allelochemicals that impair herbivore development or repel herbivore attack. Although both strategies have been well studied independently, comparatively little attention has been paid to examining the conflict that may arise between indirect and direct defences, such as when the performance of ‘recruited’ parasitoids or predators is negatively affected by plant allelochemicals. Here, we examine the growth and development of polyphagous and oligophagous folivores and their respective endoparasitoids on three crucifer species. One of the species, Brassica oleracea, was recently cultivated, whereas populations of B. nigra and Barbarea vulgaris occur naturally. Additionally, these species possess contrasting life‐history patterns and are also known to exhibit differences in secondary chemistry. The development of the generalist herbivore–parasitoid system was much more variable over the three crucifers than that exhibited by the specialists. Moreover, generalist herbivore and/or parasitoid fitness‐related traits (survival, development time, pupal, or adult size) were much more negatively affected on the wild crucifers than in the specialist association. Our results suggest that the relative importance of direct and indirect defences in plants may rest on the degree of dietary specialisation exhibited by herbivores and their natural enemies, and on the level of toxicity in the plant species under investigation.     

A taxonomic study of Salix sections Mexicanae and Viminella subsection Sitchenses (Salicaceae) in North America

The recently recognized western North American sectionsBrewerianae, Mexicanae, andSitchenses in the genusSalix were studied in the field and herbarium. SectionsSitchenses andBrewerianae are here combined and placed under sectionViminella as a subsection. Three species and an additional variety are recognized in subsectionSitchenses and seven species are recognized in sectionMexicanae. Keys for identification and distribution maps are provided.     

柳属的叶表皮微形态特征及其分类学意义

研究了29种柳属( Salix )植物在扫描电镜下的叶表皮微形态特征.结果表明:柳属的角质层蜡质纹饰可以划分为:痂状蜡质层,壳状平滑蜡质层,具凸起颗粒的蜡质层,具颗粒的蜡质层,锥形纤维体和鳞片状纤维体6种类型.其中锥形纤维体和鳞片状纤维体均为柳属所特有的蜡质类型,后者为前者的变型,这两种蜡质纹饰类型多见于较为进化的皱纹柳亚属和黄花柳亚属,故推测其可能为柳属中较为进化的性状.研究还发现气孔有外拱盖扁平和隆起呈脊状2种类型.而气孔外拱盖内缘为浅波状的类型仅见于高山和北极的类群中,因而推测该类型可能同高山和极地的低温等环境有关.气孔外拱盖的形态及其角化的情况以及蜡质类型是稳定的鉴别特征,对于柳属植物,尤其是一些表型相似的种类有很好的鉴别作用,但对于组、亚属的界定作用不大.     

Genetic diversity,population structure and phenotypic variation in European Salix viminalis L. (Salicaceae)

To investigate the potential of association genetics for willow breeding, Salix viminalis germplasm was assembled from UK and Swedish collections (comprising accessions from several European countries) and new samples collected from nature. A subset of the germplasm was planted at two sites (UK and Sweden), genotyped using 38 SSR markers and assessed for phenological and biomass traits. Population structure, genetic differentiation (F _ST ) and quantitative trait differentiation (Q _ST ) were investigated. The extent and patterns of trait adaptation were assessed by comparing F _ST ?and Q _ST parameters. Of the 505 genotyped diploid accessions, 27 % were not unique. Genetic diversity was high: 471 alleles was amplified; the mean number of alleles per locus was 13.46, mean observed heterozygosity was 0.55 and mean expected heterozygosity was 0.62. Bayesian clustering identified four subpopulations which generally corresponded to Western Russia, Western Europe, Eastern Europe and Sweden. All pairwise F _ST values were highly significant (p?F _ST ???=???0.12), and the smallest between the Swedish and Eastern European populations (F _ST ??=??0.04). The Swedish population also had the highest number of identical accessions, supporting the view that S. viminalis was introduced into this country and has been heavily influenced by humans. Q _ST values were high for growth cessation and leaf senescence, and to some extent stem diameter, but low for bud burst time and shoot number. Overall negative clines between longitudinal coordinates and leaf senescence, bud burst and stem diameter were also found.     

The phenology and intrinsic quality of wild crucifers that determine the community structure of their herbivorous insects

This report examines the plant traits that effect the community structure of herbivorous insects on wild crucifers. Wild crucifers were classified into 4 types (A, B, C, D) according to their phenology. Type A and B plants had a pausing phenology, disappearing in the middle of the insects' active season, while type C and D plants had a continual phenology, existing all year long. The intrinsic quality of the plants as food, which was assessed by measuring the performance of herbivores, was superior in type A, B and D plants, while it was inferior in type C. The phenology and intrinsic quality were the alternative means of direct defense mechanisms against herbivorous insects: The plants with a pausing phenology were intrinsically superior (A, B), while the plants with a continual phenology were intrinsically inferior (C). However, there were a few plants with continual phenology and superior intrinsic quality (D, the type B plants that remained in the summer). Within the community of the herbivorous insects on the plants with direct defense mechanisms, the number of species and individuals was small and most of the community members were specialists of the plants. On the other hand, within the community on plants without direct defense mechanisms, the number of species was large and the proportion of generalists was high. In addition, the number of individuals was very large on the remaining type B plants, but it was small on type D plants, which were inferred to have indirect defense mechanisms.     

Hybridization in staminate and pistillate Salix alba and S. fragilis (Salicaceae): morphology versus RAPDs

 The polyploid Salix alba–Salix fragilis hybrid complex is rather difficult to study when using only morphological characters. Most of the characters have a low diagnostic value for unambiguously identifying the hybrids, introgression patterns and population structures. Morphology and molecular variation determined with random amplified polymorphic DNAs (RAPDs) were investigated in a set of staminate and pistillate willows from Belgium. A thorough screening of possible RAPD markers was done to select homologous amplification products. The selected amplified products proved to be useful in a principal coordinate analysis for the identification of individuals from a morphological continuum comprising presumed pure species and introgressants. The RAPD based identity of the individuals or clones was checked against those based on morphological characters. A correspondence analysis indicated that all pubescence related characters were associated but separated from the size related characters. The RAPDs also revealed that the S. fragilis genotypes mainly consisted of staminate individuals whereas most of the pistillate trees belonged to the S. alba genotype cluster. It was suggested that both species have kept their gene pools well separated and that morphologically intermediate plants are not necessarily genetically intermediate. Received August 31, 1999 Accepted December 12, 2000     

Reasons for the presence or absence of convective (pressurized) ventilation in the genus Equisetum

? The very high rates of convective ventilation reported recently in Equisetum telmateia (up to 120 cm(3) min(-1); internal wind speed, 10 cm s(-1)) prompted this study of a further eight species for the presence or absence of convection and the possible reasons for this. ? Convection rates were examined in relation to anatomical pathways, internal resistance to applied pressurized gas flow and stomata. ? Only species with interconnecting cortical aerenchyma in branches (when present), shoots and rhizomes induced convection. Rapid humidity-induced convection (HIC) occurred in E. palustre (up to 13 cm(3) min(-1)), with slower rates in E. × schaffneri and E. ramosissimum (≤ 6 and 3 cm(3) min(-1), respectively). Excised shoots of E. hyemale and E. fluviatile showed the potential for HIC (≤ 0.5 and 0.15 cm(3) min(-1), respectively), but not into the rhizomes. High rates were linked to low internal gas flow resistance. No convection was detected in E. scirpoides, E. sylvaticum or E. arvense due to the extremely high resistance to pressure flow, for example, from intercalary meristems and, in the last two, to nonaerenchymatous branches. ? Of the nine Equisetum species studied so far, four showed through-flow convection; the other species must rely solely on diffusion for underground aeration in wet soils.