Red Light-Dependent CO(2) Uptake and Oxygen Evolution in Guard Cell Protoplasts of Vicia faba L.: Evidence for Photosynthetic CO(2) Fixation

Suspensions of dark-adapted guard cell protoplasts of Vicia faba L. alkalinized their medium in response to irradiation with red light. The alkalinization peaked within about 50 minutes and reached steady state shortly thereafter. Simultaneous measurements of O₂ concentrations and medium pH showed that oxygen evolved in parallel with the red light-induced alkalinization. When the protoplasts were returned to darkness, they acidified their medium and consumed oxygen. Both oxygen evolution and medium alkalinization were inhibited by 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU). In photosynthetically competent preparations, light-dependent medium alkalinization is diagnostic for photosynthetic carbon fixation, indicating that guard cell chloroplasts have that capacity. The striking contrast between the responses of guard cell protoplasts to red light, which induces alkalinization, and that to blue light, which activates proton extrusion, suggests that proton pumping and photosynthesis in guard cells are regulated by light quality.     

Apparent Reassimilation of Respiratory Carbon Dioxide by Different Plant Species

Differences among species in respiration rates in CO₂-free air, in light and dark, were studied using the standard leaf chamber technique and the infrared carbon dioxide analyzer. Photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration were measured. In all species studied, rates of respiration were considerably higher in dark than in light. This effect was assumed to be due to reassimilation of the respiratory CO₂. A resistance analogy model was derived to account for the apparent differences in internal recycling of CO₂ among species; the differences were correlated with differences in maximum photosynthetic rates in normal air and optimal conditions (P₃₁₀) and with internal resistances to CO₂ diffusion (r_k). Species with high P₃₁₀ and low r_k appear to reassimilate all the endogenous CO₂, whereas other species with lower P₃₁₀ and higher r_k appear to reassimilate only a part of their respiratory CO₂. Experiments with the photosynthetic inhibitor, 3-(3,4-dichlorophcnyl)-l,l-dimethyl urea (DCMU), indicated that species with zero respiration in CO₂-free air and light release respiratory CO₂ when photosynthesis is inhibited. It is concluded that the CO₂ released in the presence of DCMU represents respiratory CO₂ which recycles to photosynthesis under normal conditions.     

Effect of Glucose and CO(2) on Nitrate Uptake and Coupled OH Flux in Ankistrodesmus braunii

In Ankistrodesmus braunii, in the absence of CO₂, i.e. in CO₂-free air or N₂, photosynthetic nitrate uptake and nitrate reduction were inhibited, especially at low pH. Under such conditions, glucose stimulated nitrate uptake and reduction to almost the same level in the pH range between 6 and 8.5. CO₂ at 0.03% effected an intermediate pH dependence of nitrate uptake; saturating CO₂ concentration (more than 1%) eliminated the pH dependence, as did glucose, but the rates were enhanced compared with glucose. Glucose and, even more, CO₂, drastically reduced the release of nitrite and ammonia to the medium, the stoichiometry between alkalinization of the medium and nitrate uptake (OH⁻/NO₃⁻) approached 1.     

Light-Stimulated Changes in the Acidity of Suspensions of Oat Protoplasts: Dependence upon Photosynthesis

Light induced an alkalinization and stimulated a subsequent acidification of the medium surrounding oat (Avena sativa L. cv Garry) leaf protoplasts. Blue light was less effective than would be predicted from photosynthetic action spectra. Nonetheless, 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea prevented alkalinization and reduced acidification to the dark rate for protoplast suspensions exposed to all light regimes tested.

Alkalinization increased in parallel with initial rates of O₂ evolution as the quantum flux density of white light was raised to 75 microeinsteins per square meter per second. Alkalinization was accompanied by a decrease in the CO₂ content of the medium; therefore, it was attributed to photosynthetically induced CO₂ uptake. The effect of CO₂ depletion on the acidity of the medium appeared to be mainly restricted to the first 15 minutes of exposure to light. Consequently, subsequent pH changes primarily reflected a constant net proton efflux. Acidification occurred in the dark, but rates of acidification increased in response to increased light approximately in parallel with changes in a concomitant net O₂ efflux. The results indicated that protoplasts could acidify the medium in response to nonphotosynthetic activity, but that photosynthesis mediated light stimulation of acidification.

     

Changes in K+, Cl− and P contents in stomata of Zea mays leaves exposed to different light and CO2 levels

Maize plants (Zea mays L. hybrid INRA 508) were placed under controlled conditions of light and CO₂ partial pressure. The K⁺, Cl^? and P contents were then determined by X-ray microanalysis in the bulbous end of guard cells and in the center of subsidiary cells. The results were interpreted in connection with the stomatal conductance at the time of sampling. In normal air, the K⁺ and Cl^? contents in guard cells only rose from a light threshold of about 300 μmol m^?2 s^?1 at which stomata were already largely open. At 600 μmol m^?2 s^?1, the K⁺ and Cl^? levels in guard cells attained values that were 3- and 8-fold greater, respectively, than the values observed in darkness. The K⁺ and Cl^? contents in the subsidiary cells remained quite constant irrespective of the light conditions. CO₂-free air in darkness induced a significant K⁺ influx towards guard and subsidiary cells. Under light and in CO₂-free air, the K⁺ and Cl^? contents dramatically increased in the guard cells, but slightly decreased in the subsidiary cells. Thus, when subjected to strong light in CO₂-free air, the K⁺ and Cl^? contents in the subsidiary cells were approximately equal to those measured in normal air conditions. In the guard cells, stomatal opening was associated with a marked shift of the Cl^?/K⁺ ratio – from 0.3 for closed stomata to ca 1 for fully open stomata. This could imply a slow change in the nature of the principal counterion accompanying K⁺ during stomatal opening. The content of P in guard cells appeared, in contrast to that of K⁺ and Cl^?, to be practically independent of stomatal aperture.     

Guard Cell Chloroplasts Are Essential for Blue Light-Dependent Stomatal Opening in Arabidopsis

Blue light (BL) induces stomatal opening through the activation of H⁺-ATPases with subsequent ion accumulation in guard cells. In most plant species, red light (RL) enhances BL-dependent stomatal opening. This RL effect is attributable to the chloroplasts of guard cell, the only cells in the epidermis possessing this organelle. To clarify the role of chloroplasts in stomatal regulation, we investigated the effects of RL on BL-dependent stomatal opening in isolated epidermis, guard cell protoplasts, and intact leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana. In isolated epidermal tissues and intact leaves, weak BL superimposed on RL enhanced stomatal opening while BL alone was less effective. In guard cell protoplasts, RL enhanced BL-dependent H⁺-pumping and DCMU, a photosynthetic electron transport inhibitor, eliminated this effect. RL enhanced phosphorylation levels of the H⁺-ATPase in response to BL, but this RL effect was not suppressed by DCMU. Furthermore, DCMU inhibited both RL-induced and BL-dependent stomatal opening in intact leaves. The photosynthetic rate in leaves correlated positively with BL-dependent stomatal opening in the presence of DCMU. We conclude that guard cell chloroplasts provide ATP and/or reducing equivalents that fuel BL-dependent stomatal opening, and that they indirectly monitor photosynthetic CO₂ fixation in mesophyll chloroplasts by absorbing PAR in the epidermis.     

Isolation of Guard Cell Protoplasts from Mechanically Prepared Epidermis of Vicia faba Leaves

A method for isolating guard cell protoplasts (GCP) from mechanically prepared epidermis of Vicia faba is described. Epidermis was prepared by homogenizing leaves in a Waring blender in a solution of 10% Ficoll, 5 millimolar CaCl₂, and 0.1% polyvinylpyrrolidone 40 (PVP). Attached mesophyll and epidermal cells were removed by shaking epidermis in a solution of Cellulysin, mannitol, CaCl₂, PVP, and pepstatin A. Cleaned epidermis was transferred to a solution of mannitol, CaCl₂, PVP, pepstatin A, cellulase “Onozuka” RS, and pectolyase Y-23 for the isolation of GCP. Preparations made by this method included both adaxial and abaxial GCP and contained ≤0.017% mesophyll protoplasts, ≤0.6% mesophyll fragments, and no epidermal cell contaminants. Yields averaged 9 × 10⁴ protoplasts/leaflet and 98 to 100% of the GCP excluded trypan blue, concentrated neutral red, and hydrolyzed fluorescein diacetate. Isolated GCP increased in diameter by 2.2 micrometers after incubation in darkness in 10 micromolar fusicoccin, 0.4 molar mannitol, 5 millimolar KCl, and 1 millimolar CaCl₂. Illumination of GCP with 800 micromoles per square meter per second of red light resulted in alkalinization of their suspension medium. When 10 micromolar per square meter per second of blue light was superimposed onto the red light background, the medium acidified. Measurements of chlorophyll a fast fluorescence transients from isolated GCP indicated that GCP were capable of electron transport, and slow transients contained the “M” peak usually associated with a functional photosynthetic carbon reduction pathway.     

Action Spectra for Guard Cell Rb Uptake and Stomatal Opening in Vivia faba

Abaxial epidermal strips, containing guard cells as the only viable cells, were prepared from leaves of Vicia faba following a period in darkness, and floated, under CO₂-free air, on 2 mm RbCl + 0.1 mm CaCl₂ labeled with ⁸⁶Rb⁺. Under white light (high pressure mercury vapor lamp), stomatal opening in these strips approached its maximum at less than 0.02 calorie per square centimeter per minute. Under light of different wavelengths, 20 nanometers apart, and at a low quantum flux density of 7 × 10¹⁴ quanta per square centimeter per second, Rb⁺ uptake and stomatal opening were activated only in the blue and long ultraviolet regions, with a peak at 420 to 460 nanometers. The action spectrum suggests that the underlying process is not photosynthesis. At higher quantum flux density (38 × 10¹⁴ quanta per square centimeter per second), uptake and opening also responded to red (600-680 nanometers) and somewhat to green light, with a minimum at 540 to 560 nanometers, indicating a possible involvement of the photosynthetic process. This light-induced opening appeared not to be mediated by a lowering of CO₂ concentration, since CO₂-free air was used in all treatments and controls. Stomatal opening paralleled Rb⁺ uptake in all cases. This constitutes further evidence for the potassium transport hypothesis of stomatal movement.     

Stomatal Opening in Isolated Epidermal Strips of Vicia faba. I. Response to Light and to CO(2)-free Air

This paper reports a consistent and large opening response to light + CO₂-free air in living stomata of isolated epidermal strips of Vicia faba. The response was compared to that of non-isolated stomata in leaf discs floating on water; stomatal apertures, guard cell solute potentials and starch contents were similar in the 2 situations. To obtain such stomatal behavior, it was necessary to float epidermal strips on dilute KCl solutions. This suggests that solute uptake is necessary for stomatal opening.

The demonstration of normal stomatal behavior in isolated epidermal strips provides a very useful system in which to investigate the mechanism of stomatal opening. It was possible to show independent responses in stomatal aperture to light and to CO₂-free air.

     

The effect of CO2 on potassium transport by Chlorella fusca

Abstract. The effect of CO₂ on net K⁺ uptake by Chlorella fusca grown on high CO₂ levels was examined by passing 1.5% CO₂ through algal suspensions gassed previously with air or CO₂-free air Addition of CO₂ in the light caused a large net uptake of K⁺ (initial velocity 4.2–9.2 mmol s^?1 m^?3 cells) which decreased the concentration of K⁺ in the supernatant from 0.1–0.2 mol m^?3 to 3–10 mmol m^?3. In the dark and in the presence of 30 mmol m^?3 DCMU, no effects were found. Measurement or the unidirectional K⁺ fluxes by using ⁸⁶Rb⁺ as a label showed that in the presence of 1.5% CO₂, influx of K⁺ was increased by a factor of 2–4 while efflux was inhibited completely. CO₂ hyperpolarized the membrane potential (determined through TPP⁺ uptake) from –120mV to –130 mV which could not explain the more than 15,000-fold K⁺ accumulations. In the light, CO₂ lowered the intracellular pH (determined with DMO) by 0.5 units. In the dark and in the presence of DCMU only, a small acidification of 0.1 units was found. During the first 15 min after addition of CO₂ the malate content of the cells increased from 0.7 to 1.5 mol m^?3 packed cells. On the basis of these and earlier results, CO₂-induced net K⁺ uptake is interpreted as a stimulation of an electroneutral ATP-dependent K⁺/H⁺ exchange at the plasmalemma. This exchange acts as a ‘pHstat’ by reducing the intracellular acidification caused by production of acidic assimilation products.     

l-Glutamate-Dependent Medium Alkalinization by Asparagus Mesophyll Cells : Cotransport or Metabolism?

Mechanically isolated Asparagus sprengeri Regel mesophyll cells cause alkalinization of the suspension medium on the addition of l-glutamate or its analog l-methionine-d,l-sulfoximine. Using a radiolabeled pH probe, it was found that both compounds caused internal acidification whereas l-aspartate did not. Fusicoccin stimulated H⁺ efflux from the cells by 111% and the uptake of l-[U-¹⁴C]glutamate by 55%. Manometric experiments demonstrated that, unlike l-methionine-d,l-sulfoximine, l-glutamate stimulated CO₂ evolution from nonilluminated cells. Simultaneous measurements of medium alkalinization and ¹⁴CO₂ evolution upon the addition of labeled l-glutamate showed that alkalinization was immediate and reached a maximum value after 45 minutes whereas ¹⁴CO₂ evolution exhibited a lag before its appearance and continued in a linear manner for at least 100 minutes. Rates of alkalinization and uptake of l-[U-¹⁴C]glutamate were higher in the light while rates of ¹⁴CO₂ evolution were higher in the dark. The major labeled product of glutamate decarboxylation, γ-aminobutyric acid, was found in the cells and the suspension medium. Its addition to the cell suspension did not result in medium alkalinization and evidence indicates that it is lost from the cell to the medium. The data suggest that the origin of medium alkalinization is co-transport not metabolism, and that the loss of labeled CO₂ and γ-aminobutyric acid from the cell result in an overestimation of the stoichiometry of the H⁺/l-glutamate uptake process.     

Investigation on photorespiration with a sensitive C-assay

A leaf disk assay for photorespiration has been developed based on the rate of release of recently fixed ¹⁴CO₂ in light in a rapid stream of CO₂-free air at 30° to 35°. In tobacco leaves (Havana Seed) photorespiration with this assay is 3 to 5 times greater than the ¹⁴CO₂ output in the dark. In maize, photorespiration is only 2% of that in tobacco.

The importance of open leaf stomata, rapid flow rates of CO₂-free air, elevated temperatures, and oxygen in the atmosphere in order to obtain release into the air of a larger portion of the ¹⁴CO₂ evolved within the tissue in the light was established in tobacco. Photorespiration, but not dark respiration, was inhibited by α-hydroxy-2-pyridinemethanesulfonic acid, an inhibitor of glycolate oxidase, and by 3-(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (CMU), an inhibitor of photosynthetic electron transport, under conditions which did not affect the stomata. These experiments show that the substrates of photorespiration and dark respiration differ and also provide additional support for the role of glycolate as a major substrate of photorespiration. It was also shown that at 35° the quantity of ¹⁴CO₂ released in the assay may represent only 33% of the gross ¹⁴CO₂ evolved in the light, the remainder being recycled within the tissue.

It was concluded that maize does not evolve appreciable quantities of CO₂ in the light and that this largely accounts for the greater efficiency of net photosynthesis exhibited by maize. Hence low rates of photorespiration may be expected to be correlated with a high rate of CO₂ uptake at the normal concentrations of CO₂ found in air and at higher light intensities.

     

Metabolic energy for stomatal opening. Roles of photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation

The supply of energy for stomatal opening was investigated with epidermal peels of Commelina communis L. and Vicia faba L., under white, blue and red irradiation or in darkness. Fluencerate response curves of stomatal opening under blue and red light were consistent with the operation of two photosystems, one dependent on photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) and the other on blue light, in the guard cells. The PAR-dependent system was 3(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU)-sensitive and KCN-resistant and showed a relatively high threshold irradiance for its activation; its activity was most prominent at moderate to high irradiances. The blue-light-dependent photosystem was KCN-sensitive, was active at low irradiances, and interacted with the PAR-dependent photosystem at high blue irradiances. Stomatal opening in darkness, caused by CO₂-free air, fusicoccin or high KCl concentrations, was KCN-sensitive and DCMU-resistant. These data indicate that stomatal opening in darkness depends on oxidative phosphorylation for the supply of high-energy equivalents driving proton extrusion. Light-dependent stomatal opening appears to require photophosphorylation from guard-cell chloroplasts and the activation of the blue-light photosystem which could rely either on oxidative phosphorylation or a specific, membrane-bound electron-transport carrier.Abbreviations DCMU 3(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-1-dimethylurea - FC fusicoccin - KCN potassium cyanide - PAR photosynthetic active radiation - WL white light     

Interaction of respiratory and photosynthetic electron transport in Anabaena variabilis Kütz.

Prelabeled Anabaena variabilis Kütz. evolves ¹⁴CO₂ in the light with KCN and DCMU (2,4-dichlorophenyl-1,1-dimethylurea) present, comparable to the dark control without inhibitors added. Double-reciprocal plots of CO₂ release vs. light intensity with either KCN or KCN+DCMU present result in two straight lines intersecting at the ordinate. Apparently, reducing equivalents originating from carbohydrate catabolism are channeled into the photosynthetic electron-transport chain, competing for electrons from photosystem II. Under these conditions, the CO₂ release is accompanied by a light-dependent oxygen uptake, presumably due to oxygen-reducing photosystem-I activity while ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase is inhibited by KCN.Comparing nine blue-green algae it was shown that only nitrogen-fixing species release substantial amounts of CO₂ in the light with KCN or KCN+DCMU present. This release is particularly obvious with Anabaena variabilis Kütz. under nitrogen-fixing conditions, but small when the alga is grown with combined nitrogen.We conclude that nitrogen-fixing species share a common link between respiratory and photosynthetic electron transport. The physiological role may be electron supply of nitrogenase by photosystem I.     

Effect of CO2 on Volume Change of Guard Cell Protoplast from Vicia faba L

Guard cell protoplasts (GCP) were isolated from epidermal stripsof Vicia faba L. by enzymatic digestion. The presence of non-osmoticvolume in the protoplast was suggested by the relationship betweenprotoplast volume and the mannitol concentration of the suspendingmedium. Light illumination caused swelling of GCP only whenKCl was present in the suspending medium. Dark treatment causedshrinking of GCP irrespective of the presence of 10 mM KCl.In the presence of 10 µM abscisic acid (ABA), GCP shrank.Light-induced swelling was suppressed at concentrations of ambientCO₂ higher than that in normal air. Promotion of swelling wasnot always observed at lower CO₂ concentration. These volumechange responses to light, ABA and CO₂ suggest that GCP retainsits physiological activity as a guard cell. The osmotic contributionof K⁺ to volume increase was lower than expected. Ambient CO₂seems to have some effect on the contribution of K⁺ to osmoregulationof GCP. (Received January 30, 1982; Accepted June 25, 1982)     

The effect of light on membrane potential, apoplastic pH and cell expansion in leaves of Pisum sativum L. var. Argenteum.

The connection between three light responses of green leaf cells-membrane potential (V_m), H⁺ net efflux and growth, was analyzed. Illumination of mesophyll cells in leaves from Argenteum peas caused two rapid responses: (i) a de- and repolarization of V_m and (ii) an alkalinization of the apoplast. The rapid responses were completely eliminated by the photosynthetic inhibitor 3-(3′,4′-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea (DCMU) but not affected by ortho-vanadate, an inhibitor of the plasma membrane (PM) H⁺-ATPase. The rapid changes were followed by a set of delayed responses: (i) a slow, gradual hyperpolarization of V_m, (ii) a gradual acidification of the mesophyll apoplast and (iii) an increased rate of elongation. These three light responses persisted under DCMU but were completely eliminated by vanadate. The data show that the delayed (in contrast to the rapid) responses were due to a stimulation of PM H⁺ pumps which occurred independently of non-cyclic photosynthetic electron transport and the “dark” processes depending on it. When the rapid responses were blocked by DCMU, light-induced acidification, hyperpolarization of the membrane potential and growth proceeded simultaneously. A shared (4-min) lag phase indicated slower signal processing in mesophyll than in epidermal cells where light stimulation of PM H⁺ pumps was rapid. Received: 3 September 1998 / Accepted: 15 October 1998     

Stomatal movement and potassium transport in epidermal strips of Zea mays: The effect of CO2

Summary The correlation between stomatal action and potassium movement in the epidermis of Zea mays was examined in isolated epidermal strips floated on distilled water. Stomatal opening in the isolated epidermis is reversible in response to alternate periods of light or darkness, and is always correlated with a shift in the potassium content of the guard cells. K accumulates in guard cells during stomatal opening, and moves from the guard cells into the subsidiary cells during rapid stomatal closure. When epidermal strips are illuminated in normal air, as against CO₂-free air, the stomata do not open and there is a virtually complete depletion of K from the stomatal apparatus. In darkness CO₂-containing air inhibits stomatal opening and K accumulation in guard cells, but does not lead to a depletion of K from the stomata as observed in the light.     

Seasonal CO2 exchange patterns of developing peach (Prunus persica) fruits in response to temperature, light and CO2 concentration

CO₂ exchange rates per unit dry weight, measured in the field on attached fruits of the late-maturing Cal Red peach cultivar, at 1200 μmol photons m^?2S^?1 and in dark, and photosynthetic rates, calculated by the difference between the rates of CO₂ evolution in light and dark, declined over the growing season. Calculated photosynthetic rates per fruit increased over the season with increasing fruit dry matter, but declined in maturing fruits apparently coinciding with the loss of chlorophyll. Slight net fruit photosynthetic rates ranging from 0. 087 ± 0. 06 to 0. 003 ± 0. 05 nmol CO₂ (g dry weight)^?1 S^?1 were measured in midseason under optimal temperature (15 and 20°C) and light (1200 μmol photons m^?2 S^?1) conditions. Calculated fruit photosynthetic rates per unit dry weight increased with increasing temperatures and photon flux densities during fruit development. Dark respiration rates per unit dry weight doubled within a temperature interval of 10°C; the mean seasonal O₁₀ value was 2. 03 between 20 and 30°C. The highest photosynthetic rates were measured at 35°C throughout the growing season. Since dark respiration rates increased at high temperatures to a greater extent than CO₂ exchange rates in light, fruit photosynthesis was apparently stimulated by high internal CO₂ concentrations via CO₂ refixation. At 15°C, fruit photosynthetic rates tended to be saturated at about 600 μmol photons m^?2 S^?1. Young peach fruits responded to increasing ambient CO₂ concentrations with decreasing net CO₂ exchange rates in light, but more mature fruits did not respond to increases in ambient CO₂. Fruit CO₂ exchange rates in the dark remained fairly constant, apparently uninfluenced by ambient CO₂ concentrations during the entire growing season. Calculated fruit photosynthetic rates clearly revealed the difference in CO₂ response of young and mature peach fruits. Photosynthetic rates of younger peach fruits apparently approached saturation at 370 μl CO₂1^?2. In CO₂ free air, fruit photosynthesis was dependent on CO₂ refixation since CO₂ uptake by the fruits from the external atmosphere was not possible. The difference in photosynthetic rates between fruits in CO₂-free air and 370 μl CO₂ 1^?1 indicated that young peach fruits were apparently able to take up CO₂ from the external atmosphere. CO₂ uptake by peach fruits contributed between 28 and 16% to the fruit photosynthetic rate early in the season, whereas photosynthesis in maturing fruits was supplied entirely by CO₂ refixation.     

Blue-light-induced pH changes associated with NO3−, NO2− and Cl− uptake by the green alga Monoraphidium braunii

In M. braunii, the uptake of NO₃⁻ and NO₂⁻ is blue-light-dependent and is associated with alkalinization of the medium. In unbuffered cell suspensions irradiated with red light under a CO₂-free atmosphere, the pH started to rise 10s after the exposure to blue light. When the cellular NO₃⁻ and NO₂⁻ reductases were active, the pH increased to values of around 10, since the NH₄⁺ generated was released to the medium. When the blue light was switched off, the pH stopped increasing within 60 to 90s and remained unchanged under background red illumination. Titration with H₂SO₄ of NO₃⁻ or NO₂⁻ uptake and reduction showed that two protons were consumed for every one NH₄⁺ released. The uptake of Cl⁻ was also triggered by blue light with a similar 10 s time response. However, the Cl⁻ -dependent alkalinization ceased after about 3 min of blue light irradiation. When the blue light was turned off, the pH immediately (15 to 30 s) started to decline to the pre-adjusted value, indicating that the protons (and presumably the Cl⁻) taken up by the cells were released to the medium. When the cells lacked NO₃⁻ and NO₂⁻ reductases, the shape of the alkalinization traces in the presence of NO₃⁻ and NO₂⁻ was similar to that in the presence of Cl⁻, suggesting that NO₃⁻ or NO₂⁻ was also released to the medium. Both the NO₃⁻ and Cl⁻-dependent rates of alkalinization were independent of mono- and divalent cations.     

Influence of light intensity at different temperatures on rate of respiration of douglas-fir seedlings

The rate of photorespiration of Douglas-fir seedlings was measured under different light intensities by: (1) extrapolating the curve for CO₂ uptake in relation to atmospheric CO₂ content to zero CO₂ content, and (2) measuring CO₂ evolution of the plants into a CO₂-free airstream. Different results, obtained from these techniques, were believed to be caused by a severe restriction of the photosynthetic activity when the latter was used. With the first method, CO₂ evolution was lower than the dark respiration rate at low light intensity. For all temperatures studied (6°, 20°, 28°) a further increase in light intensity raised the CO₂ evolution above dark respiration before it leveled off. The rate of CO₂ evolution was stimulated by increase in temperature at all light intensities. With the CO₂-free air method, CO₂ evolution in the light was less than dark respiration at all light intensities.