Multivariate perspectives on change and continuity in the Middle Stone Age lithics from Klasies River Mouth, South Africa

This paper examines variability and the emergence of the Howiesons Poort within the Middle Stone Age lithic technologies of Klasies River Mouth. Here I present a pattern recognition study using multivariate statistical techniques examining the data presented by [Singer, R., Wymer, J.J., 1982. The Middle Stone Age at Klasies River Mouth in South Africa. Chicago University Press, Chicago]. Using this model, the Middle Stone Age (MSA) lithics from Klasies River Mouth load on three main factors: (1) a Levallois flake manufacture factor, (2) a blade manufacture factor, and (3) a worked point factor. The MSA I assemblage from Cave 1 and the MSA II assemblage from Shelter 1a correlate strongly with the worked point factor, the MSA II assemblage from Cave 1 correlates strongly with the Levallois factor, and the Howiesons Poort assemblage from Shelter 1a correlates strongly with the blade factor. The Howiesons Poort from Shelter 1a is differs more from all other industries than the remaining industries do from each other. In addition, the Howiesons Poort from Cave 2 groups closely with the MSA III assemblage from Shelter 1a due to similarities in raw material frequencies.     

Chin morphology and sexual dimorphism in the fossil hominid mandible sample from Klasies River Mouth

The site of Klasies River Mouth (KRM) in South Africa has produced a small sample of early Upper Pleistocene hominid remains that have been a focus for discussions of the origins of modern humans. Despite certain primitive characteristics exhibited by these fossils, proponents of a single recent origin have attributed them to early modern humans. Critics of this hypothesis have emphasized the significance of the archaic features evident in this sample, including the absence of pronounced chins among the mandibular specimens. This study compares the size range and chin morphology exhibited by the KRM mandibles with that of Neandertals, Upper Pleistocene humans, and recent humans. The extreme sexual dimorphism documented among the KRM fossils reflects the presence of a very small individual, and previous efforts to classify the KRM sample as archaic on the basis of their robusticity have failed to address the significance of this diminutive hominid. While each KRM fossil falls within the 95% envelope of variability established for chin development in a comparative modern sample, a similarly low frequency of pronounced chins is very unlikely to be found in any recent human population. The morphological pattern of the KRM mandibles is clearly distinct from that of Neandertals and of recent humans. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The view from the Lincoln Cave: mid- to late Pleistocene fossil deposits from Sterkfontein hominid site, South Africa

The Lincoln-Fault cave system lies adjacent to the Sterkfontein Cave system in the Cradle of Humankind World Heritage Site, Gauteng Province, South Africa. Lincoln Cave contains a mid- to late Pleistocene fossiliferous deposit which has been dated using uranium series methods to between 252,600+/-35,600 and 115,300+/-7,700 years old. Although speleologists presumed that there was no connection between the Lincoln Cave and Sterkfontein Cave systems, results of excavations conducted in 1997 suggest a link between the deposits. Detailed comparisons of artifacts, fauna, hominid material, and a statistical correspondence analysis (CA) of the macromammalian fauna in the deposits strongly support this hypothesis. The recovery of Early Acheulean-type artifacts from the Lincoln Cave suggests that older artifacts eroded out of Sterkfontein Member 5 West and were redeposited into the younger Lincoln Cave deposits. The close physical proximity of these deposits, and the nature of the material recovered from them, indicates that the material was probably redeposited via a link between the two cave systems. Although faunal mixing is present, it is possible to say that large carnivorans become more scarce at Sterkfontein during the mid- to late Pleistocene, while small canids and felids appear to become more abundant, indicating that large and small carnivorans probably varied their use of the site through time. This may also reflect an increasing presence of humans in the Sterkfontein area during the mid- to late Pleistocene.     

New human teeth from Middle Stone Age deposits at Klasies River, South Africa

Since 1984, the main site at Klasies River has been re-investigated. Human remains, animal bones and stone artefacts have been collected from the LBS, SAS and other stratigraphic members, and these discoveries help to establish the antiquity of anatomically near-modern populations practicing a Middle Stone Age way of life on the southern coast of Africa. Several teeth found in the lower SAS levels in 1989-1991 can be matched in recent South African populations. Two complete upper molars representing one individual have crowns that are relatively short mesiodistally. These specimens are small in comparison to black South African homologues, but MD and BL dimensions fall close to the averages for San burials. This evidence confirms that several of the Klasies individuals have very small molars, while others have cheek teeth that are close to the upper limits for size variation in recent Africans. The new material is in keeping with the view that sex dimorphism within this Middle Stone Age population may be pronounced.     

Human remains from Blombos Cave, South Africa: (1997-1998 excavations)

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) layers at Blombos Cave contain abundant bifacial Still Bay points, formal and ad hoc bone artefacts, and an intentionally incised bone piece. These artefacts add weight to arguments that some aspects of modern human behavior developed earlier in sub-Saharan Africa than elsewhere. Four human teeth were recovered from the MSA strata at Blombos during the 1997-1998 excavations. Two are heavily worn deciduous teeth, and two are incomplete permanent premolar crowns. The Blombos di(1)is comparatively large in relation to modern African homologues, falling within the lower part of the observed Neandertal range. The dm(1)and P(3)are comparable to modern teeth and smaller than most Neandertal crowns. The premolars preserve horizontal circum-cervical striae that suggest palliative toothpick use. The di(1)evinces labial scratches that resemble neither the "cutmarks" that have been observed on Neandertal incisors, nor the striae that have been recorded on modern human teeth.     

Human foot bones from Klasies River main site, South Africa

The caves at Klasies River contain abundant archaeological evidence relating to human evolution in the late Pleistocene of southern Africa. Along with Middle Stone Age artifacts, animal bones, and other food waste, there are hominin cranial fragments, mandibles with teeth, and a few postcranial remains. Three foot bones can now be added to this inventory. An adult first metatarsal is similar in size and discrete anatomical features to those from Holocene burials in the Cape Province. A complete and well-preserved second metatarsal is especially long and heavy at midshaft in comparison to all Holocene and more recent South African homologues. A large fifth metatarsal is highly distinctive in its morphology. In overall size, these pedal elements resemble specimens from late Pleistocene sites in western Asia, but there are some differences in proportions. The fossils support earlier suggestions concerning a relatively high level of sexual dimorphism in the African Middle Stone Age population. Squatting facets on the two lateral metatarsals appear to indicate a high frequency of kneeling among members of this group. The new postcranial material also underlines the fact that the morphology of particular skeletal elements of some of the 100,000-year-old Klasies River individuals falls outside the range of modern variation.     

Optical dating of dune sand from Blombos Cave,South Africa: I--multiple grain data

An aeolian sand unit overlies the Middle Stone Age deposits at Blombos Cave on the southern Cape coast. These deposits contained culturally-important artefacts, including bone tools and pieces of engraved ochre, as well as a large number of worked lithics. The aeolian sand and two other remnants of the sand dune formed against the coastal cliff were dated using optical dating. To determine the dose received since deposition, measurements were made on 5mg aliquots of purified quartz grains using the single-aliquot regenerative-dose (SAR) protocol. The results of several internal check procedures are reported and at least 15 replicate dose determinations are presented for each sample. Combining these dose values with measurements of the radioactive content of each sample resulted in an age of 69.2+/-3.9 ka for the unit within the cave, and a mean age of 70.1+/-1.9 ka for all three dune samples. This provides a minimum age for the Middle Stone Age material at Blombos Cave.     

Extending the chronology of deposits at Blombos Cave, South Africa, back to 140 ka using optical dating of single and multiple grains of quartz

Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) measurements are reported for both single aliquots (of two different sizes) and single grains of quartz from deposits within Blombos Cave. Ages have been obtained for six sediments from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) occupation levels and for two sterile sands, one underlying the archaeological sediment and one overlying the Later Stone Age occupation levels. The ages for the archaeological sediments were obtained from single-grain measurements that enabled unrepresentative grains to be rejected. The MSA occupation levels have ages that, within error limits, are in stratigraphic order and fall between the OSL age for the oldest dune sand (143.2+/-5.5 ka) and a previously published OSL age for the sterile sand ( approximately 70 ka) that separates the Middle and Later Stone Age deposits. The earliest MSA archaeological phase, M3, from where fragments of ochre were found as well as human teeth, is dated to 98.9+/-4.5 ka, coinciding with the sea-level high of oxygen isotope substage 5c. The cave then appears to be unoccupied until oxygen isotope substage 5a on the basis of four OSL ages for archaeological phase M2, ranging from 84.6+/-5.8 to 76.8+/-3.1 ka; these levels contained large hearths and bone tools. An age of 72.7+/-3.1 ka was obtained for the final MSA archaeological phase, M1, from which deliberately engraved ochre and shell beads were recovered along with bifacial stone points. We conclude that the periods of occupation were determined by changes in sea level, with abundant sources of seafood available in times of high sea level and with the cave being closed by the accumulation of large dunes during periods of low sea level, such as during oxygen isotope stages 4 and 6.     

Taphonomic and paleoecological change in the large mammal sequence from Boomplaas Cave,western Cape,South Africa

Excavations conducted by H.J. Deacon in the 1970s at Boomplaas Cave (BPA) uncovered a stratified sequence of Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Later Stone Age (LSA) deposits spanning the last >65,000 years. This study provides the first comprehensive and integrated taphonomic and paleoecological analysis of the BPA large mammals, with a focus on its implications for understanding human adaptations and environmental changes in southern Africa's Cape Floristic Region (CFR), an area that features prominently in understanding modern human origins. Taphonomic data indicate a complex history of human, carnivore, and raptor accumulation of the large mammal assemblage. The anthropogenic signal is largely absent from the bottom of the sequence (>65,000 years ago), intermediate in MSA and LSA assemblages from ∼50,000 to 20,000 years ago, and strong in LSA deposits post-dating the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). When viewed in the broader CFR context, the inferred occupation history of BPA is consistent with the hypothesis that both MSA and LSA human populations were concentrated on the submerged coastline from ∼60,000 to ∼20,000 years ago. Intensive occupation following the LGM parallels an apparent increase in regional population densities, which may have been driven in part by rising sea levels. The BPA ungulate assemblage is characterized by the rise and decline of a taxonomically diverse grazing community, which peaks during the LGM. These changes are not correlated with taphonomic shifts, meaning that they are likely driven by environmental factors, namely the expansion and contraction of grassland habitats. Changes in ungulate diversity indicate that effective precipitation was highest during the LGM, corresponding with an intensified winter rainfall system. This is consistent with recent arguments that the LGM in this region may not have been extremely harsh and arid.     

Diagenesis of bone from Border Cave: implications for the age of the Border Cave hominids

Hominids from the site of Border Cave purportedly provide direct evidence for the early emergence of anatomically modern humans (AMH) in Southern Africa. ESR dating of Border Cave faunal enamel has confirmed the antiquity of the sediments, although questions persist regarding the provenience of the hominid specimens. Here we establish that, at Border Cave as elsewhere, bone mineral crystallinity, measured as the infrared (IR) splitting factor (SF), distinguishes between contemporary and recent bones on the one hand, from Middle Stone Age (MSA) bones on the other. Two hominid postcranial bones recovered in 1987 from a slumped profile, having essentially no provenience, are shown to have crystallinity indices consistent with the MSA fauna, while two of the purportedly ancient AMH specimens (BC3 and BC5) have values consistent with recent fauna. We conclude that BC3 and BC5 may be considerably younger than the sediments from which they were recovered.     

Glacial cycling, large mammal community composition, and trophic adaptations in the Western Cape, South Africa

Some of the earliest evidence for modern human behavior has been recovered from the Western Cape Province, South Africa. Archaeological and paleontological sites in the Western Cape are typically described as “glacial” or “interglacial” in aspect based on the numbers of grazers found in the faunal assemblage, as glacial periods are often thought to have been characterized by spreading C₄ grasslands that replaced endemic C₃ shrubland vegetation found in the Western Cape today. Here, we test the hypothesis that glacial and interglacial time periods were associated with a predictable change in large mammal trophic adaptations by analyzing the proportions of grazing larger mammals from 118 levels of 15 Western Cape fossil assemblages sampling marine isotope stage (MIS) 6 to the present time to determine whether there is a change in composition in these communities that might reflect a shift in ecology and habitat. Our results indicate that trophic proportions did not significantly change over time in the Western Cape as a whole, and thus the hypothesis for habitat changes affecting the subsistence ecology of modern humans during the development of modern behavior is not supported. However, our results show that the southwestern subregion of the Western Cape was characterized by the presence of more grazing species through time than the western subregion. Thus, if ecological and population isolation during glacial periods were integral to catalyzing the development of modern behaviors in the Western Cape region of South Africa, then a complex model including the development of possible mosaic habitats is needed.     

Radiometric dating of the Earlier Stone Age sequence in excavation I at Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa: preliminary results

We present here the results of 44 paleomagnetic measurements, and single cosmogenic burial and optically stimulated luminescence ages for the Earlier Stone Age deposits from Wonderwerk Cave, Northern Cape, South Africa. The resulting paleomagnetic sequence: N>R>N>R>N constrains the Earlier Stone Age strata in this part of the site to between approximately 0.78-1.96 Ma. A single cosmogenic date of approximately 2.0 Ma from the base of the section offers some corroboration for the paleomagnetic sequence. Preliminary results indicate that the small lithic assemblage from the basal stratum may contain an Oldowan facies. This is overlain by several strata containing Acheulean industries. The preliminary radiometric dates reported here place the onset of the Acheulean at this site to approximately 1.6 Ma, which is roughly contemporaneous with that of East Africa.     

New discoveries and interpretations of hominid fossils and artifacts from Vindija Cave, Croatia

Beginning with excavations during the 1970s, Vindija Cave (Croatia) has yielded significant Middle and Upper Paleolithic fossil and archaeological finds. We report on seven recently identified hominid fossils, a newly associated partial hominid cranial vault from level G(3), nine possible bone retouchers, and a revised interpretation of the Mousterian artifact assemblage from the site. This new information reinforces our knowledge of the complex biocultural phenomena revealed in unit G and earlier deposits at Vindija. Six of the new hominid fossils derive from stratigraphic units G and I, while one lacks exact provenience. All specimens preserving diagnostic anatomy are from Neandertals. One of the postcranial remains, a radius fragment which exhibits Neandertal-like anatomy, comes from level G(1)and is congruent with the previously established association of Neandertals with an early Upper Paleolithic industry at the site. The partial cranial vault represents the most complete Neandertal from Vindija. The possible retouchers derive from unit G. Our analysis of these artifacts suggests that both percussion and pressure techniques may have been used by Neandertals in the final stage of tool production (retouching). This paper also presents a revision of the artifact analysis for late Mousterian level G(3). We separated raw materials into two main groups due to the differing ways that the materials fracture and the differing morphology of the debitage. The use of raw material in level G(3)is different from earlier Middle Paleolithic levels at Vindija. This indicates that the G(3)late Neandertals were making choices regarding source material somewhat more like the Upper Paleolithic people at the site. When interpreted within a larger regional framework, the Vindija archaeological and hominid fossil remains demonstrate a complex, mosaic pattern of biocultural change in the Late Pleistocene of south-central Europe.     

The gripping nature of ochre: the association of ochre with Howiesons Poort adhesives and Later Stone Age mastics from South Africa

This contribution provides direct evidence for the use of ochre in adhesive recipes during the Howiesons Poort of South Africa. Stone segments from two KwaZulu-Natal sites were microscopically analyzed to document ochre and resin microresidue occurrences. These microresidues show a clear distribution pattern on the tool portions that are associated with hafting. Results from a separate quartz and crystal-quartz sample may indicate that different adhesive recipes were applied to different raw materials. A possible functional application for ochre in association with Later Stone Age mastics is also explored. The evidence and suggestions presented here expand our understanding of the versatility, use, and value of pigmentatious materials in prehistory; it is not viewed as an alternative or replacement hypothesis for its possible symbolic role during the late Pleistocene.     

广西崇左三合巨猿大洞新发现的鼠科化石

本文记述了广西崇左三合巨猿大洞新发现的鼠类化石, 共有7属11种, 包括了4个绝灭种, 占鼠类总数的40%。经系统比较研究显示, 三合大洞鼠类主要属种的形态特征显然要比重庆巫山龙骨坡的进步, 且较相似于湖北建始龙骨洞的相关鼠类; 古地磁的测年结果为距今在120—160万年, 其时代应是早更新世中期。三合大洞鼠类除了个别广布型外均为东洋界成员, 而且几乎都是树栖和半树栖以及林地生活的种类, 与大哺乳动物反映的生态特征基本一致, 当时的自然景观为气候温暖炎热, 森林茂盛的环境。三合大洞鼠类化石的研究填补了广西巨猿动物群缺少鼠类记载的空白, 这对于探讨其生态环境将提供重要的信息。     

广西扶绥岩亮洞早更新世独角犀年龄结构的分析

岩亮洞是广西扶绥地区最近新发现的早更新世巨猿化石点,经过初步发掘,采集到了丰富的巨猿材料及大量伴生的哺乳动物化石。引人注目的是其中犀类化石居多,包括146颗完整的牙齿及十多件头后骨骼化石,从形态特征判断,这些犀类化石应属于独角犀的一新种Rhinoceros fusuiensis。岩亮洞巨猿动物群中的独角犀以种群丰度最大而不同于其他已知东亚地区的巨猿动物群中的独角犀类材料。本文从犀类牙齿的主尖釉质层、齿质暴露程度、咀嚼面的磨蚀程度等方面对岩亮洞独角犀的年龄结构进行了研究。该死亡群中至少有4头幼年个体、5头青年个体、5头成年个体和1头老年个体。依据牙齿磨蚀程度和牙齿萌出顺序对年龄结构的分析及统计显示,其中青年个体和成年个体最多,幼年个体次之,老年个体最少,其死亡的原因不是通常意义上磨耗型死亡,突发性的灾害可能是造成这种死亡年龄分布的主要原因。     

3-D digital mapping of the early hominid site of gladysvale cave,South Africa

Gladysvale, a dolomitic cave located near Johannesburg, South Africa, has yielded in the last few years several thousand Plio-Pleistocene mammalian remains, including some hominid teeth and phalanges. The site consists of four large cave chambers, one of which has been heavily eroded and exposed to the surface. During the field seasons of 1996 and 1997 the cave complex was mapped 3-dimensionally using a laser theodolite. Preliminary graphics allowed a direct control of the mapping process in the field. The topographic structure of the site was reconstructed to a digital terrain model and can now be embedded in a comprehensive Geo-Information System (GIS). Mapping the complex topography of a cave site with many overlapping parts is a challenge; as there exists no algorithm for 3-dimensional triangulation, each overlapping surface has to be triangulated separately. A 3-D model, however, is necessary for understanding the complicated formation of the cave and its geological history. It is now possible to record the exact location     

Newly discovered fossil- and artifact-bearing deposits, uranium-series ages, and Plio-Pleistocene hominids at Swartkrans Cave, South Africa

We report on new research at Swartkrans Cave, South Africa, that provides evidence of two previously unrealized artifact- and fossil-bearing deposits. These deposits underlie a speleothem dated by the uranium-thorium disequilibrium technique to 110,000 ± 1,980 years old, the first tightly constrained, geochronological date available for the site. Recovered fauna from the two underlying deposits—including, prominently, the dental remains of Paranthropus (Australopithecus) robustus from the uppermost layer (Talus Cone Deposit)—indicate a significantly older, late Pliocene or early Pleistocene age for these units. The lowest unit (LB East Extension) is inferred to be an eastward extension of the well-known Lower Bank of Member 1, the earliest surviving infill represented at the site. The date acquired from the speleothem also sets the maximum age of a rich Middle Stone Age lithic assemblage.