Habitat segregation among mimetic ithomiine butterflies (Nymphalidae)

The extensive wing pattern diversity observed among sympatric unpalatable mimetic butterflies is difficult to explain. Diversity is a paradox because selection by predators is expected to drive local species to use the same aposematic patterns. Habitat segregation among mimicry complexes has been suggested as a hypothesis to explain how diversity could be maintained. However, very few studies have tested this hypothesis. To test whether mimicry complexes are associated with particular habitats, I sampled a diverse assemblage of ithomiine butterflies from eastern Ecuador comprising nine discrete mimicry complexes. Butterflies were sampled in four habitats varying along a gradient of succession. A total of 43 species and 902 individuals were sampled. Ithomiine species richness and abundance were lowest in open habitats, and habitat preferences were documented for many species. Mimicry complexes exhibited significant habitat differences supporting the role of habitat segregation in maintaining mimetic diversity. However, there was obvious overlap among mimicry complexes, particularly involving the two numerically dominant patterns at the site. The pattern of segregation appears to be driven by common species, with relatively little evidence that the distribution of rarer species matches that of the more abundant species. Thus, habitat segregation is likely to play a role in the evolution of mimetic diversity as a result of segregated abundant model species, but the effect is probably weak and other factors are also important.     

山西稀有濒危植物脱皮榆群落的种间分离

通过对山西太岳山脱皮榆群落1 hm²样地内出现的14种乔木进行调查,在应用ArcGIS软件分析每个个体的最近邻体植株的基础上,采用N×N最近邻体列联表及其2×2列联表截表的方法和Pielou分离指数计算分析了脱皮榆群落的种间分离规律,并根据种间分离情况以及物种对环境的适应方式,利用PCA排序将样地中14个物种进行了生态种组的划分。结果表明:（1）该群落中出现的14种乔木构成的91个种对中,随机毗邻种对占绝大多数（74.73%）,正分离种对较少（23.07%）,负分离种对极少（2.20%）,群落趋于稳定。（2）群落的种间分离在不同种之间存在着一定的差异,脱皮榆仅与其他树种随机毗邻;正分离常发生在群落中的优势种之间,而负分离常发生在群落中的伴生种之间。（3）种间分离与群落的生境异质性和物种的生态需求具有密切的关系,即两个具有不同生境要求的物种之间常常发生正分离,而具有相同或相似生境要求的物种之间常常发生负分离。（4）脱皮榆群落中14种乔木可划分为3个生态种组。研究认为,脱皮榆群落内物种的总体分离规律为全面不分离。由生境异质性、物种间不同的生物学特性和生态需求为基础的种间关系可能是维持太岳山脱皮榆群落稳定共存的机制之一。     

Polymorphic segregation in Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (L.) from Vatnshlidarvatn, a shallow Icelandic lake

We studied the salmonid fish Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus , in a small and shallow landlocked lake in NW Iceland. The lake is productive but die only fish present is Arctic charr. Despite the apparent absence of discrete benthic and limnetic habitats for fish, two forms of Arctic charr are found in the lake. They show subde differences in morphology related to swimming performance and manoeuvrability, but differences in life history such as growth, and age and size at sexual maturation are more pronounced. Both forms have benthic feeding habits with one form consuming greater number of species than the other. We suggest that the segregation of these forms is based on the evolution of a specialist from a local generalist and that this has been made possible by the absence of a common fish competitor in similar lakes, the threespined stickleback Gasterosteous aculeatus.     

Auditory cortical contrast enhancing by global winner-take-all inhibitory interactions

Brains decompose the world into discrete objects of perception, thereby facing the problem of how to segregate and selectively address similar objects that are concurrently present in a scene. Theoretical models propose that this could be achieved by neuronal implementations of so-called winner-take-all algorithms where neuronal representations of objects or object features interact in a competitive manner. Here we present evidence for the existence of such a mechanism in an animal species. We present electrophysiological, neuropharmacological and neuroanatomical data which suggest a novel view of the role of GABA(A)-mediated inhibition in primary auditory cortex (AI), where intracortical GABA(A)-mediated inhibition operates on a global scale within a circular map of sound periodicity representation in AI, with functionally inhibitory projections of similar effect from any location throughout the whole map. These interactions could underlie the proposed competitive "winner-take-all" algorithm to support object segregation, e.g., segregation of different speakers in cocktail-party situations.     

A study of intragroup biological change induced by social group fission in Macaca mulatta using discrete cranial traits

Eight discrete cranial traits are used as biological indicators to investigate the effect of social group fission on intragroup genetic change leading to intergroup differentiation in Macaca mulatta. The timing of discrete cranial trait frequency change and group fission coincide, indicating a possible causal relationship between fission and genetic change. A significant change in the male mating population during and after fission is proposed as the mechanism causing intragroup genetic change, along with the effects of fluctuations in segregation ratios.     

山西五鹿山白皮松群落乔灌层的种间分离

种间分离的研究对于揭示种间相互作用、群落组成与动态具有重要意义。为了探讨五鹿山自然保护区白皮松林内物种间的关系及其共存机制,运用ArcGIS软件、N×N最近邻体列联表及其2×2列联表截表的方法、Pielou的分离指数,Hegyi单木竞争指数对山西五鹿山白皮松群落55个样方内的15种乔木和灌木的种间分离规律及9种乔木的种内种间竞争关系进行研究,并根据种间分离情况以及物种对环境的适应方式,将样地中15个物种划分为3个生态种组。结果表明:(1)该群落中随机毗邻种对占绝大多数(80%),正分离种对较少(16.19%),负分离种对极少(3.81%),群落趋于稳定。(2)种间分离在不同种之间存在着一定的差异,正分离常发生在群落中的建群种或优势种之间;而负分离常发生在群落中的优势种和一些伴生种之间。(3)物种的种间分离状况与其种内种间竞争及物种的空间分布格局具有密切的关系,正分离常常发生在种内竞争大于种间竞争呈聚集分布的优势种或建群种之间;而负分离常常发生在种间竞争大于种内竞争的优势种和伴生种之间,且同一生态种组内的物种种间竞争较不同生态种组间激烈。(4)种间分离与群落的生境异质性和物种的生态需求也具有密切的关系,即两个具有不同生境要求的物种之间常常发生正分离;而具有相同或相似生境要求的物种之间常常发生负分离。(5)白皮松群落内物种的总体分离规律为全面不分离。(6)由生境异质性和物种间不同的生态适应性引起的种内种间关系是维持五鹿山自然保护区白皮松群落稳定共存的机制。     

南岭国家级自然保护区常绿阔叶林主要树种的种间分离

种间分离的研究对揭示种间相互作用、群落组成与动态具有重要意义。本研究在南岭国家级自然保护区的常绿阔叶林内,设置了36个样方,以样方内株数≥10的27个物种为研究对象,在样方调查的基础上,运用ArcGIS软件、N×N最近邻体列联表、2×2列联表截表以及Pielou分离指数,研究了群落内27个物种的种间分离规律,采用Clark_Evans最近邻体法测定了27个物种的分布格局。结果显示:(1)27个物种中,有3个呈聚集分布,24个呈随机分布;(2)常绿阔叶林植物群落中正分离种对占59.83%,随机毗邻种对占40.17%,没有负分离,群落稳定;(3)正分离主要发生在群落优势种或建群种之间,优势种之间也有随机毗邻发生;(4)呈聚集分布的物种与其它物种主要表现为正分离,一般不表现为负分离;而呈随机分布的物种之间多数表现为随机毗邻,也有部分表现为正分离或负分离;(5)群落内27个物种互相交错分布,是全面不分离的。     

Domains required for CENP-C assembly at the kinetochore.

Chromosomes segregate at mitosis along microtubules attached to the kinetochore, an organelle that assembles at the centromere. Despite major advances in defining molecular components of the yeast segregation apparatus, including discrete centromere sequences and proteins of the kinetochore, relatively little is known of corresponding elements in more complex eukaryotes. We show here that human CENP-C, a human autoantigen previously localized to the kinetochore, assembles at centromeres of divergent species, and that the specificity of this targeting is maintained by an inherent destruction mechanism that prevents the accumulation of CENP-C and toxicity of mistargeted CENP-C. The N-terminus of CENP-C is not only required for CENP-C destruction but renders unstable proteins that otherwise possess long half-lives. The conserved targeting of CENP-C is underscored by the discovery of significant homology between regions of CENP-C and Mif2, a protein of Saccharomyces cerevisiae required for the correct segregation of chromosomes. Mutations in the Mif2 homology domain of CENP-C impair the ability of CENP-C to assemble at the kinetochore. Together, these data indicate that essential elements of the chromosome segregation apparatus are conserved in eukaryotes.     

Movement of the Apollo butterfly Parnassius apollo related to host plant and nectar plant patches

1. The movement of adults of the endangered Apollo butterfly, Parnassius apollo, was studied using mark–recapture data, within a population consisting of discrete patches of the species’ host plant (n = 43), which were segregated spatially from patches of the species’ main nectar plants (n = 14). 2. The Apollo routinely moved large distances (median 260 m, maximum 1840 m), and moved frequently between the two types of patches. Only 27% (28/105) of the recaptures were made on the same host plant patch as the release. 3. The population acts as a patchy population where the adults mix over the whole area, but successful reproduction can only take place in the discrete host plant patches. 4. Occurrence on a host plant patch was restricted by the area size of the host plant patch and the spatial configuration of nectar plant patches. Thus, although the Apollo is a good flyer, its movement over the patches is still constrained by the segregation of adult and larval resources.     

Habitat segregation among freshwater shrimp species in an Amazonian rainforest stream system

1. Resource partitioning is a stabilising mechanism known to maintain species diversity in a variety of environments. Assemblages of stream shrimp species are structured by habitat features and predation. Therefore, segregation along habitat dimensions could facilitate coexistence among species in shrimp assemblages even when segregation is a result of predation pressure by fish species. These ecological interactions take place on a background modulated by biogeographic features, such as connectivity among drainages. However, these generalisations are mainly based on studies undertaken in temperate regions.
2. We investigated whether abundances of rainforest shrimp species are related to habitat dimensions, and whether habitat–abundance relationships might be mediated through fish-assemblage structure and the effect of drainages on connectivity.
3. We detected effects of habitat variation on densities of shrimp species, but the magnitudes of the effects were larger for some species than others. Fish-assemblage composition also affected shrimp densities. Two of the three species of shrimp showed some degree of habitat specialisation, but only along current-velocity, depth, and pH gradients. Habitat segregation among species occurred along the current-velocity and pH gradients. Relationships between density and environmental gradients differed between catchments for only one species and only along the pH gradient.
4. Our findings provide evidence that rainforest-stream shrimp species respond differently to environmental gradients and this could facilitate coexistence among species. However, interactions with fish seem to have a stronger effect on species densities, and consequently species segregation, than direct effects of the environmental gradients, resulting in apparent competition for these resources.

     

Line segregation

Six experiments investigated the preattentive segregation of line-like patterns composed of discrete elements in a background of distractors. The results indicate that other factors in addition to spatial density influence line segregation. Edge alignment, edge length and principal axis orientation also affect line segregation. Differences in the outputs of Gabor filters fail to account for the perceived segregation of the lines. Possible models of line segregation based on element grouping, feature density and search are briefly discussed.     

单位点孢子体-配子体互作模型中不育基因的位置和效应的估计方法

水稻籼粳亚种间杂交F1通常表现为高度不育,这种不育性的一种遗传学解释称为单位点孢子体-配子体互作模型.为了研究这种不育性,提出了一种统计方法,可以估计单位点孢子体-配子体互作模型中不育基因位点的位置和效应.该方法利用回交群体中呈现异常分离的标记位点,用最大似然法对不育基因与标记位点之间的重组率和雌配子存活率进行估计.由于所依据的是非连续变异的遗传标记的分离,而不是连续分布的配子育性指标,因此可以避免由育性直接估计所带来的重组率结果的不稳定.     

Two behavioural traits promote fine-scale species segregation and moderate hybridisation in a recovering sympatric fur seal population

Background  

In systems where two or more species experience secondary contact, behavioural factors that regulate interspecific gene flow may be important for maintaining species boundaries and reducing the incidence of hybridisation. At subantarctic Macquarie Island, two species of fur seal breed in close proximity to one another, hybridise at very high levels (up to 21% of hybrid pups are born annually), yet retain discrete gene pools. Using spatial and genetic information collected for pups and adults over twelve years, we assessed two behavioural traits - inter-annual site fidelity and differences in habitat use between the species - as possible contributors to the maintenance of this species segregation. Further, we explored the breakdown of these traits in pure-species individuals and hybrids.     

Ecomorphological correlates in tropical stream fishes of southern India

Synopsis I studied ecomorphological correlations in 18 stream fish species (belonging to five families) commonly occurring in diversity rich habitats of rivers in the central Western Ghats (Southern India). Univariate and multivariate analyses indicated a clear segregation of species in morphological and ecological (habitat) space. Cluster analyses using morphological features segregated species based mainly on their body shape and feeding parameters while habitat parameters segregated species according to their position along the water column and preference to runs or pool habitats. Principal component analyses showed that body size, head dimensions, mouth position and eye diameter were important characters for species segregation in morphological space while run or pool habitat type and the position of the fish in the water column best explained segregation of species in habitat space. Consistencies in some of the species clusters obtained from analyses on morphological characteristics and habitat preferences warrant closer examination of the relationships between them. These were studied employing multivariate methods like canonical correspondence analysis and the Mantel test. The tests revealed weak correlations indicating that in addition to morphology, other factors like behavioural, physiological and evolutionary constraints together are likely to play an important role in ecosystem structuring of these complex tropical assemblages.     

Functional andromonoecy in Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae)

The occurrence of cyathia containing staminate flowers but lacking a pistillate flower was studied in 17 species of Euphorbia. Male cyathia were found in the majority of species studied (88.2%) giving functional andromonoecy. In the male cyathia, the pistillate flower is generally totally absent, but sometimes a vestigial pistillate flower with a non-functional ovary is present. The proportion of male cyathia varied at both the population and species level. The position of male cyathia within the inflorescence showed a constant pattern among species: the proportion of male cyathia decreased from the first to the last levels of the pleiochasia. In general, perennial species had significantly higher proportions of male cyathia than annual species (mean 20 and 2.3%, respectively). In annual species there was a trend for production of male cyathia only in the first level of the inflorescence, whereas in perennials production up to the fourth level of the inflorescence was usual. Functional andromonoecy is common in Euphorbia and represents a new sex segregation in the genus. The selective forces causing this secondary sex segregation in Euphorbia, such as improved pollination or increased outcrossing, are discussed.     

Lack of habitat segregation and no interspecific territoriality in three syntopic cryptic species of the golden‐spectacled warblers Phylloscopus (Seicercus) burkii complex

It is widely accepted that exploitative competition prevents the coexistence of any two or more closely‐related species unless differences exists in their ecological niches and resource use. In sibling bird species, exploitative competition is reduced mainly by spatial segregation of competing species. Spatial segregation can be achieved in two basic ways: by using different habitats or microhabitats that each species is predominately exploiting, or by interspecific territoriality. To our knowledge, either habitat segregation or interspecific territoriality or both have been found in all dyads and groups of sympartic sibling bird species studied so far. In this study, we investigated the coexistence of three cryptic sibling species of the golden‐spectacled warblers Phylloscopus burkii complex in Hunan Province, China: Ph. tephrocephalus, Ph. omeiensis and Ph. valentini. We analyzed their habitat preferences, and spatial interrelations between the species. In order to analyze either presence or absence of interspecific territoriality, we additionally performed con‐ and heterospecific playback experiments. Contrary to expectations, we found no evidences for either habitat segregation or interspecific territoriality in these three species.     

The Allee Effect in Population Dynamics with a Seasonal Reproduction Pattern

The local consequences of the Allee effect in isolated populations of animal species with a seasonal reproduction pattern that nonmonotonically depends on population density are studied based on a discrete analog of the Bazykin–Ludwig model. Along with the critical population size (below which the population degenerates because of the Allee effect), the limiting population size is discovered: the population with a higher density degenerates because of overpopulation. The effect of the initial population size on possible scenarios of its development is studied in detail. It is shown that an “intermediate” population size that provides the maximum population density is unachievable in some cases.     

SEXUAL SPECIES ARE SEPARATED BY LARGER GENETIC GAPS THAN ASEXUAL SPECIES IN ROTIFERS

Why organisms diversify into discrete species instead of showing a continuum of genotypic and phenotypic forms is an important yet rarely studied question in speciation biology. Does species discreteness come from adaptation to fill discrete niches or from interspecific gaps generated by reproductive isolation? We investigate the importance of reproductive isolation by comparing genetic discreteness, in terms of intra‐ and interspecific variation, between facultatively sexual monogonont rotifers and obligately asexual bdelloid rotifers. We calculated the age (phylogenetic distance) and average pairwise genetic distance (raw distance) within and among evolutionarily significant units of diversity in six bdelloid clades and seven monogonont clades sampled for 4211 individuals in total. We find that monogonont species are more discrete than bdelloid species with respect to divergence between species but exhibit similar levels of intraspecific variation (species cohesiveness). This pattern arises because bdelloids have diversified into discrete genetic clusters at a faster net rate than monogononts. Although sampling biases or differences in ecology that are independent of sexuality might also affect these patterns, the results are consistent with the hypothesis that bdelloids diversified at a faster rate into less discrete species because their diversification does not depend on the evolution of reproductive isolation.     

山西历山国家级自然保护区千金榆群落种间分离研究

对山西历山国家级自然保护区普通沟和西峡的千金榆(Carpinus cordata)群落进行野外调查,共记录了40个样方,44个物种,组成946个种对.利用最近邻体法构造N×N最近邻体列联表,以x2检验和种间分离指数S作为区分指标,研究了千金榆群落的种间分离情况.结果表明:(1)946个种对中呈现随机毗邻的最多,有507个种对,占总数的53.59％;呈现正分离的有349个种对,占总数的36.89％;而呈现负分离种对最少,只有90对,占总数的9.52％.(2)群落的建群种或优势种因为有较强的生存能力和竞争能力,往往表现出正分离,例如千金榆、小叶鹅耳枥(Carpinus turczaninowii)、五角枫(Acer mono)、葛罗槭(Acer grosseri)等有较强生存能力的物种与大多数的物种发生正分离;而六道木(Abelia biflora)、东北茶镳子(Ribes mandshuricum)、小花溲疏(Deutziaparviflora),美蔷薇(Rosa bella)和紫花卫矛(Euonymus porphyries)等群落中的伴生种或小灌木,与部分物种形成负分离.其余物种之间发生随机毗邻的较多.(3)对千金榆群落44×44列联表进行全面分离,结果表明群落内的44个物种相互交错分布,不是全面分离.此外,种间分离的结果也揭示该群落处于演替初期,受岩石风化崩塌的影响较严重,人为干扰因素较轻.     

Does environmental heterogeneity affect species co‐occurrence in ecological guilds across stream macroinvertebrate metacommunities?

Null model analyses have greatly improved our understanding of species co‐occurrence. Null model analyses have shown, for example, that cold‐blooded animals show less segregated distributions than warm‐blooded animals. This topic has rarely been studied simultaneously across multiple metacommunities. We analysed data on 10 stream metacommunities (with 10 communities in each metacommunity) of a cold‐blooded animal group, benthic macroinvertebrates, and examined co‐occurrence within five ecological guilds. We found that the segregated species co‐occurrence was not the rule in stream invertebrate guilds. This was evidenced by the finding that only 10% of the 50 guild matrices we analyzed showed significant segregation and no matrices showed significant aggregation in the within‐stream analyses. However, in the across‐streams analysis, all guilds showed significant segregation. We neither found differences in the degree of segregation among the guilds, the degree of species segregation did not increase with overall environmental heterogeneity, and there were no differences in the relationships between species segregation and overall environmental heterogeneity among the guilds. Expanding the spatial extent from single stream metacommunities (i.e. within each stream) to the whole study region (i.e. across the streams) increased significantly segregation in all guilds. Because environmental heterogeneity across streams was much higher than within single streams, overall environmental heterogeneity may nevertheless have effects on species segregation. It also seems that the effects of overall heterogeneity on species segregation were masked by mass effects in the within‐stream analyses.