Medicinal plants of Northern and Central Oman (Arabia)

The use of medicinal herbs in northern and central Oman (Arabia) is still common today. Plants known for their curative powers are used for a wide spectrum of diseases, from common cold and fever to paralysis and diabetes. Herbal medicines are dispensed, after “diagnosis” from a herbal healer. The detailed uses of 35 native and 21 cultivated plants and their chemical composition are given.     

Nontimber Forest Product Use in Two Human Populations from Northwest Patagonia: A Quantitative Approach

The ancestral tradition of gathering nontimber products in the Andean forests of Patagonia seems to be on the verge of disappearing. Edible wild plant knowledge and differential patterns of use have been compared in two populations of different economic and cultural backgrounds—a small rural Mapuche community (Rams), and an outlying population (El Frutillar). The first is located in an herbaceous steppe far from the nearest Andean forest while the second is located outside the town of Bariloche, near the forests of Nahuel Huapi National Park. Semistructured interviews and related ecological variables were compared in both communities. In the past, both communities utilized nontimber forest products from the Andean Temperate forests. However, today, cost and benefit trade-offs appear to affect when and what edible resources are collected. The people from El Frutillar gather fewer wild plants in spite of the high plant abundance and the notorious food scarcity they suffer. The Mapuche people use more nutritious resources, more native species, spend longer traveling to the gathering site, and longer handling time preparing edible plants.     

The “Quan Fang Bei Zu”, a first dictionary for Chinese plants

The “Quan Fang Bei Zu”, a first dictionary for Chinese plants, which contains 27 volumes in its first collection and 31 volumes in its second collection, was completed by Chen Jing-yi in 1253, the First Year of Bao You of Li Zong in Song Dynasty. The first part of this encyclopaedia of plants is devoted to flowers. The second part is of more varied nature, dealing with fruit trees, plants in general, herbs, trees, agriculture and sericulture, vegetables, and medicinal herbs. These two collections cover 267 kinds of plants, each of which is described under two categories separately: The first category, “Si Shi Zu” in Chinese, meaning “facts of the plants” concerned, which again divided into 3 entries, i.e. the history, miscellaneous information and sundry bits of the plants. The second category, “Fu Yong Zu” in Chinese, meaning poetry, which divided into 10 meters, wherein the plants are described and eulogized in poetrical expressions. Later on, the “Quan Fang Bei Zu” was used as a blueprint for some famous books in China, for example, the “Qun Fang Pu” and the “Guang Qun Fang Pu” all written and compiled after its model. It is known today that in China there are only two extant hand writting copies of it, one in Beijing Library, the other in the Library of Yunnan University. Both of them are listed as the best national books. Outside China, it is known that a third copy of is in the Congress Library in U.S.A. As for the original wood-carving copy printed during the period of the Song Dynasty, it is known so far that one copy is kept in the Library of Culture Ministry of Japan. The Beijing Agriculture Publishing House has made a decision to photograph this carved copy in the Culture Ministry of Japan as one of the “Precious Series of China Agriculture Science”. The book plays a very important role in the study of chinese botany, agri-culture science, medicine, history and literature.     

Tolerance to herbivory in woody vs. herbaceous plants

Research on plant tolerance to herbivory has been so far largely focussed on herbaceous plants partly due to the implicit assumption that woody plants are inherently lower in their compensatory potential as compared to herbs. However, tolerance to herbivory should be an important part of resistance of woody plants because their apparency to herbivory is high due to a large size and long life span, and their defence systems cannot completely exclude herbivory. Moreover, the longer life span, more complex modularity and higher sectorality of woody plants as compared to herbs imply that compensatory responses in woody plants may take several years to develop, and that consequences of herbivore damage to individual modules may profoundly differ from whole-plant responses. Therefore, short-term studies using branches or ramets as experimental units are likely to underestimate the tolerance of woody plants to herbivory. In addition, defoliation by insects (the most common type of herbivory experienced by woody plants) is less likely to release apical dominance and trigger biomass compensation than mammalian grazing on herbaceous plants. We conclude, therefore, that the seemingly different recovery potentials exhibited by woody and herbaceous plants are more likely to be the consequences of differences between the two types of plants in modular architecture, longevity and the type of herbivory they commonly experience rather than indications of inherent differences in compensatory ability. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Implications of clonality for ageing research

Senescence, an organismal performance decline with age, has historically been considered a universal phenomenon by evolutionary biologists and zoologist. Yet, increasing fertility and survival with age are nothing new to plant ecologists, among whom it is common knowledge that senescence is not universal. Recently, these two realities have come into a confrontation, begging for the rephrasing of the classical question that has led ageing research for decades: “why do we senesce?” to a more practical “what are the mechanisms by which some organisms escape from senescence?” Plants are amenable to examining this question because of their rich repertoire of life history strategies. These include the existence of permanent seed banks, vegetative dormancy and ability to produce clones, among others. Here, I use a large number of high resolution demographic models from 181 species that reflect life history strategies and their trade-offs among herbaceous perennials, succulents and shrubs measured under field conditions worldwide to examine whether senescence rates of ramets from clonal plants differ from those of whole plants reproducing either strictly sexually, or with a combination of sexual and clonal mechanisms. Contrary to the initial expectation from the mutation accumulation theory of senescence, ramets of clonal plants were more likely to exhibit senescence than those species employing sexual reproduction. I discuss why these comparisons between ramets and genets are useful, as well as its implications and future directions for ageing research.     

上海城市森林草本植物多样性的城乡分布格局

林下草本植物是城市森林生物多样性重要的保育层,敏感度高,可塑性强,能有效反映城市植被对城市化的响应策略。本研究在上海市范围内沿中心城区—近郊—远郊的城乡梯度,共选取16块林地共398个样方,分析了上海市森林草本群落区系特征和多样性格局沿城乡梯度的变化规律。结果表明:上海城市森林生态系统中共有草本植物144种,隶属47科118属;多年生草本74种,占半数以上(51.39%);属和种分别涵盖18和12个分布区类型和亚型,以热带和温带成分为主;外来植物28种,占比接近20%;物种丰富度和群落多样性指数均沿中心城区—近郊—远郊梯度先下降后上升,近郊最低,远郊最高;中心城区物种构成与远郊相似,与近郊差异最大。本研究揭示了城市森林生态系统中草本植物的分布格局以及多样性沿城乡梯度的变化规律,为深入开展城市化与城市植被的互作研究提供了理论支撑,为管理部门制定相关政策提供了科学依据。     

锁阳和肉苁蓉寄生方式的区别

锁阳和肉苁蓉都是中医药里重要的补益类药材,但由于过度采挖和采挖方式不当,目前它们的野生资源已濒临枯竭。肉苁蓉和锁阳分别是我国濒危和易危珍稀植物,研究二者寄生方式的特点与区别不仅可以促进锁阳和肉苁蓉的人工栽培,从而使野生药材得到一定的保护,而且对了解寄生植物在荒漠地区等极端严酷环境中的适应机制具有重要的生态学意义。该研究采用形态学观察结合常规石蜡切片法,对锁阳和肉苁蓉分别在各自寄主植物上的寄生方式进行了研究。结果表明：(1)锁阳的营养繁殖体在寄主植物根部呈串状分布,与寄主植物的连接方式属于非末端寄生;锁阳的吸器侵入寄主根系韧皮部和木质部的一部分区域,但是韧皮部和木质部大部分区域未被锁阳吸器占据,即有部分营养物质被锁阳“截取”。(2)肉苁蓉在其肉质茎基部长出新的芽体,与寄主植物的连接方式属于末端寄生;肉苁蓉的吸器侵入寄主根韧皮部和木质部全部区域。因此,锁阳寄生后,被寄生的寄主根依然能够向前生长,具有正常的功能;肉苁蓉寄生后,寄生点的寄主根失去根系的正常功能,成为一个为肉苁蓉生长发育提供营养物质的“输送通道( Transport channel)”。     

Climbing strategy in herbs does not necessarily lead to lower investments into stem biomass

Herbaceous climbers (vines) represent a growth strategy in which the stem lacks most of its supporting function. This has led to the hypothesis that herbaceous climbers are structural parasites that invest less into stems than self-supporting plants. So far, the support for this idea has been ambiguous, as woody and herbaceous plants have been discussed jointly and evidence is often based on young plants in pot experiments. We collected in wild fully grown temperate herbaceous climbers and self-supporting herbs to examine the idea. We made a phylogenetically informed comparison of biomass allocation into stems and leaves of 16 climber species and 74 self-supporting herbs. Furthermore, we compared our results with those published for woody climbers to gain insight into different biomass allocation between herbaceous and woody growth forms. We found that herbaceous climbers and self-supporting herbs do not differ in their proportion of stem biomass to leaf biomass. Herbaceous climbers reach much higher in the canopy thanks to their climbing habit and in average more than seven times longer stems, but contrary to the expectation and unlike their woody counterparts, they do not save on investment into the stem. Herbaceous climbers and self-supporting herbs represent a study system which provides insight into biomass scaling with versus without supporting function where both stems as well as leaves are seasonal.

     

Fossil evidence for a herbaceous diversification of early eudicot angiosperms during the Early Cretaceous

Eudicot flowering plants comprise roughly 70% of land plant species diversity today, but their early evolution is not well understood. Fossil evidence has been largely restricted to their distinctive tricolpate pollen grains and this has limited our understanding of the ecological strategies that characterized their primary radiation. I describe megafossils of an Early Cretaceous eudicot from the Potomac Group in Maryland and Virginia, USA that are complete enough to allow reconstruction of important life-history traits. I draw on quantitative and qualitative analysis of functional traits, phylogenetic analysis and sedimentological evidence to reconstruct the biology of this extinct species. These plants were small and locally rare but widespread, fast-growing herbs. They had complex leaves and they were colonizers of bright, wet, disturbance-prone habitats. Other early eudicot megafossils appear to be herbaceous rather than woody, suggesting that this habit was characteristic of their primary radiation. A mostly herbaceous initial diversification of eudicots could simultaneously explain the heretofore sparse megafossil record as well as their rapid diversification during the Early Cretaceous because the angiosperm capacity for fast reproduction and fast evolution is best expressed in herbs.     

Carnivores,Colonization, and Conflict: A Qualitative Case Study on the Intersectional Persecution of Predators and People in Namibia

Nonhuman carnivores have historically been demonized, lethally controlled, and extirpated throughout many parts of the world—indeed, they bear the brunt of this in some places still today. To understand why this is still occurring, it is important to appreciate the historical events that have shaped and led to this situation. We use a qualitative case study in Namibia that draws on an archival review and eight months of ethnography to describe the widespread control of nonhuman carnivores in the country, from the 1800s to the present day. Calling upon Val Plumwood’s eco-feminist typology of domination of the “Other,” and integrating it with current advances in inter- sectional theory, we explain the apparent parallels in this process of domi- nation of Namibian nonhuman predators alongside its Indigenous peoples by European settlers. We discuss the process of colonization of predators and people, highlighting how perceived power differentials provided an ideal situation to dominate these presumed “Others.” We conclude with a number of recommendations that could begin to reconcile conflicts between people and predators, and between different groups of people.     

浙北地区不同土地利用下乡村草本层植物多样性研究

该文以浙江省安吉县两个典型乡村—繅舍村和赋石村为例,选取公园、农耕区、河道、人工林地四种不同土地利用类型,用Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数、Sorensen指数为标识多样性的指标,分析不同生境下草本植物多样性差异。结果表明：乡村生境中共记录物种162种,分属47科123属,其中禾本科与菊科物种数占总数的31.48％;农耕区生境的Shannon-Wiener指数、Simpson指数最高,分别为2.76和0.91,农耕区与河道的Sorensen指数最高为0.57。从农耕区、河道、公园到林地生境,草本物种多样性整体呈减小趋势。另外,发现人工绿化措施会导致草本物种减少,如从种植水稻单一作物到复合作物,草本层植物随之改变。单一稻田与复合种植区比较,草本植物主要的科属组成无明显变化,莎草科、菊科、禾本科植物仍占主体;但草本植物群落主要物种组成发生变化,稻田转变成农耕区后,牛筋草、黑麦草,碎米荠、小飞蓬、喜旱莲子草成为草本层群落主要构成植物,水竹叶覆盖度减少,小飞蓬和喜旱莲子草的覆盖度增加。此外,还发现4种生境中共有喜旱莲子草、加拿大一枝黄花、土荆芥三种入侵物种,但未能对本土物种构成显著影响。这表明不同土地利用方式会严重影响草本群落物种组成及物种多样性;土地利用方式的变化,会引起草本植物主要群落构成发生改变;土地利用类型的多样化有利于本土草本物种多样性生存。该研究结果有助于为城镇化进程中保护乡村植物多样性、加速推进美丽中国建设提供技术支撑。     

Drought effect on plant biomass allocation: A meta‐analysis

Drought is one of the abiotic stresses controlling plant function and ecological stability. In the context of climate change, drought is predicted to occur more frequently in the future. Despite numerous attempts to clarify the overall effects of drought stress on the growth and physiological processes of plants, a comprehensive evaluation on the impacts of drought stress on biomass allocation, especially on reproductive tissues, remains elusive. We conducted a meta‐analysis by synthesizing 164 published studies to elucidate patterns of plant biomass allocation in relation to drought stress. Results showed that drought significantly increased the fraction of root mass but decreased that of stem, leaf, and reproductive mass. Roots of herbaceous plants were more sensitive to drought than woody plants that reduced reproductive allocation more sharply than the former. Relative to herbaceous plants, drought had a more negative impact on leaf mass fraction of woody plants. Among the herbaceous plants, roots of annuals responded to drought stress more strongly than perennial herbs, but their reproductive allocation was less sensitive to drought than the perennial herbs. In addition, cultivated and wild plants seemed to respond to drought stress in a similar way. Drought stress did not change the scaling exponents of the allometric relationship between different plant tissues. These findings suggest that the allometric partitioning theory, rather than the optimal partitioning theory, better explains the drought‐induced changes in biomass allocation strategies.     

Phloem loading strategies and water relations in trees and herbaceous plants

Most herbaceous plants employ thermodynamically active mechanisms of phloem loading, whereas in many trees, the mechanism is passive, by diffusion. Considering the different water transport characteristics of herbs and trees, we hypothesized that water relations play a role in the adoption of phloem loading strategies. We measured whole-plant hydraulic conductance (K(p)), osmolality, concentrations of polar metabolites, and key inorganic ions in recently mature leaves of 45 dicotyledonous species at midafternoon. Trees, and the few herbs that load passively, have low K(p), high osmolality, and high concentrations of transport sugars and total polar metabolites. In contrast, herbs that actively load sucrose alone have high K(p), low osmolality, and low concentrations of sugars and total polar metabolites. Solute levels are higher in sugar alcohol-transporting species, both herbs and trees, allowing them to operate at lower leaf water potentials. Polar metabolites are largely responsible for leaf osmolality above a baseline level (approximately 300 mm) contributed by ions. The results suggest that trees must offset low K(p) with high concentrations of foliar transport sugars, providing the motivating force for sugar diffusion and rendering active phloem loading unnecessary. In contrast, the high K(p) of most herbaceous plants allows them to lower sugar concentrations in leaves. This reduces inventory costs and significantly increases growth potential but necessitates active phloem loading. Viewed from this perspective, the elevation of hydraulic conductance marks a major milestone in the evolution of the herbaceous habit, not only by facilitating water transport but also by maximizing carbon use efficiency and growth.     

The effectiveness of active and passive restoration on recovery of indigenous vegetation in riparian zones in the Western Cape,South Africa: A preliminary assessment

Riparian ecosystems in South Africa's fynbos biome are heavily invaded by alien woody plants. Although large-scale clearing of these species is underway, the assumption that native vegetation will self-repair after clearing has not been thoroughly tested. Understanding the processes that mediate the recruitment of native species following clearing of invasive species is crucial for optimising restoration techniques.This study aimed to determine native species recovery patterns following implementation of different management interventions. We tested the influence of two clearing treatments (“fell & remove” and “fell & stack burn”) on the outcomes of passive restoration (natural recovery of native riparian species) and active restoration (seed sowing and planting of cuttings) along the Berg River in the Western Cape. Under greenhouse conditions we investigated seed viability and germination pre-treatments of selected native species.There was no recruitment of native species in sites that were not seeded (passive restoration sites), possibly because of the dominance of alien herbaceous species and graminoids or the lack of native species in the soil-stored seed bank. Germination of our targeted native species in the field was low in both “fell & remove” and “fell & stack burn” treatments. However, “fell & stack burn” gave better germination for the species Searsia angustifolia, Leonotis leonurus and Melianthus major. Seedling survival in the field was significantly reduced in summer, with drought stress being the main cause for seedling mortality. Germination rates in the greenhouse were high, an indication that harvested seeds were viable. Most seeds germinated without germination pre-treatments.We conclude that failure of native seeds to germinate under field conditions, secondary invasion of alien herbs and graminoids, the lack of native species in the soil-stored seed bank, and dry summer conditions hamper seedling establishment and recovery on sites cleared of dense stands of alien trees. For active restoration to achieve its goals, effective recruitment and propagation strategies need to be established.     

Dependence of Asian honeybee on deciduous woody plants for pollen resource during spring to mid‐summer in northern Japan

Apis cerana japonica Radoszkowski, endemic to Japan, is known to be one of the most important pollinators for wild plants and crops, such as buckwheat, in cool to warm temperate Japan. To determine the degree of dependence of A. cerana japonica on forest resources, we analyzed pollen brought back to nests in a typical “Satoyama” landscape with relatively high deciduous forest coverage in northern Japan. We divided the landscape elements of the study area into three types: deciduous forest, conifer plantation and open land according to landcover digital data, and each pollen taxon was assigned to one of these three types of landscape elements. We collected total pollen loads of 15.75 g (total of colonies A and B) in May (spring), 1.57 g (total of colonies A and C) in June (early summer), 19.03 g (total of colonies A, B and C) in July (mid‐summer) and 45.61 g (total of colonies A, B and D) in September (autumn). Deciduous forests are the most important foraging habitats for A. cerana japonica in the “Satoyama” landscape especially from spring to mid‐summer when mass flowering of tall trees and shrubs species provides rich floral resources for developing bee colonies. On the other hand, the bees frequently foraged from herbaceous plant species in autumn when flowering of tree species reduces and herbaceous plant species have flowering peaks. In turn, the bees provide pollination services to a number of wild flowers blooming in various forest layers ranging from the canopy to the understory layer.     

Rise of herbaceous diversity at the southeastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau: First insight from fossils

The Hengduan Mountains region (HMR) on the southeastern Tibetan Plateau, supports a high diversity of herbs, particularly in its subalpine to alpine ecosystems, due to high altitude and cool temperate climate. Current understanding on the formation of such herbaceous richness is based chiefly on molecular phylogenies; however, direct geological evidence is lacking because herbs are rarely preserved as macroscopic fossils. In this study, we present abundant fossil fruits and seeds of herbs from the late Pliocene Heqing Basin in the southern HMR. Our systematic analysis shows the presence of at least 18 species belonging to 11 genera, that is, Ranunculus, Corydalis, Rumex, Polygonum, Chenopodium, Stellaria, Fragaria, Astragalus, Aster, Carex, and Schoenoplectus, of which Polygonum is most abundant followed by Astragalus. This finding throws the first light from fossil evidence on the rise of herbaceous diversity in the region. We interpret the local assembly of these herbs as resulting from rapid pre-Pliocene species diversifications of many herbaceous groups in the HMR. As nowadays most of these herbs grow primarily in meadows and a few occur as subaquatic plants, we suggest an open meadow hosting some scattered shrubs in the vicinity of a vegetated wetland in the Heqing Basin during the late Pliocene. This provides the first direct evidence of past treeless open vegetation within the HMR and thus improves our knowledge of vegetation evolution in the region. We suggest that the uplift-induced climate cooling and monsoon-associated precipitation seasonality are potentially the key driving forces for the opening of meadow vegetation in the HMR.     

THE ROLE OF FIRE AND OTHER INFLUENCES ON THE SAVANNAH HABITAT, WITH SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The derivation and definitions of the word “savannah” are discussed. The roles of fire, grazing and shifting cultivation as limiting factors in the savannah habitat are briefly considered. The savannah regions of Africa are made up of communities of plants and animals which have been “deflected” from their normal course of ecological succession by the influences of cultivation, fire, grazing and browsing. Fire-sensitive plants are those which have not developed a resistance to burning. Many plants, for example “geophytes”, have become fire-tolerant. The ability of woody plants to survive underground and regenerate quickly in savannah regions when given respite from grass fires for a few years is one of the reasons why regrowth is so difficult to control in overgrazed country, tsetse control clearings and areas protected from fire. The savannah regions can be regarded as areas of natural or semi-natural vegetation which provide a habitat for wild and/or domestic ungulates. Therefore, it is from the rangeland aspect that the possibilities for further research in the savannah habitat should be considered. To succeed in future research projects, the disciplined co-operation of the local people is essential. A few suggestions for some of the more obvious lines of research are: 1. Prolonged investigations on the effects of fire, grazing and browsing on all types of savannah country. 2. More intensive investigations on root systems and soil moisture relationships of the plants concerned are necessary. 3. Studies of the nutritive value of different plants. 4. Closer investigation into the cultivation of land for subsistence agriculture when it might be put to better use as rangeland is necessary. 5. The possibilities of using all suitable parts of the savannah regions to the best advantage must be investigated in detail. 6. The conservation and use of wild life resources must be studied as an integral part of savannah research.     

Ten days in the life of a mandrill horde in the Lopé Reserve,Gabon

Mandrills have long been known to form large aggregations in the wild, but it has proved difficult to obtain detailed information on the socioecology of these groups. An unusually large (>600) horde of mandrills was followed for ten days during the 1995 dry season in Central Gabon, and data were collected on group composition and ecology while the mandrills were in an area of forest-savanna mosaic habitat in the north of the Lopé Reserve. Three separate counts of most of the group showed that fully coloured “fatted” adult males were present throughout the horde at a mean ratio to other individuals of 1:21. Paler “non-fatted” adult and sub-adult males were also distributed throughout. Mandrill diet over the ten days consisted mainly of insects, seeds from forest trees, and leaves or stems of understory herbaceous plants. Feeding was extremely selective, with most food items consumed in a much higher proportion than would be predicted from their relative availability. Ranging data also showed that the mandrills foraged preferentially in certain forest types within the forest-savanna mosaic, namely in Marantaceae and Rocky Forest. It is suggested that one reason why mandrills pass through gallery forests and forest-savanna mosaic in the dry season in the Lopé Reserve is because they find fruit there from preferred species, which are no longer fruiting in the main forest block, thus allowing them to maintain the fruit component of their diet at a time of fruit shortage. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Environmental Pollution and Relationship Between Total Antioxidant Capacity and Heavy Metals (Pb,Cd, Zn,Mn, and Fe) in Solanum tuberosum L. and Allium cepa L.

In the natural environment, plants are exposed to different stress factors that are responsible for overproduction of reactive oxygen species. Exposure to heavy metals is one of these factors. The present article highlights the correlation between the effects of bioaccumulation of heavy metals in a highly polluted region as the industrial zone of the Thermo Power Plants “Kosova” in Kosovo on the antioxidant capacity of two selected target species: Solanum tuberosum L. and Allium cepa L. The results show that environmental pollution in the industrial zone of the Thermo Power Plants “Kosova” generates a significant bioaccumulation of heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Zn, Mn, and Fe. The high concentration of heavy metals leads to an increased production of reactive radical species. The extracts of target plants cultivated in this region display a lower antioxidant capacity than the same plants grown in a control rural area. The Fe bioaccumulation markedly influences the antioxidant capacity of plant samples analyzed.