A novel Heterosigma akashiwo (Raphidophyceae) bloom extending from a South Carolina bay to offshore waters

In April 2003, a novel Heterosigma akashiwo bloom was observed that extended from Bulls Bay, South Carolina USA, to approximately 8 km offshore. The bloom was associated with a fish kill of approximately 10⁴ fish. The bloom coincided with salinities anomalously low for the region and optimal for H. akashiwo growth. The low salinities were related to the rediversion of freshwater a month earlier from the Cooper River into the Santee River, which partially feeds into Bulls Bay. H. akashiwo identification was confirmed using a species-specific real-time PCR assay modified for the direct amplification of target DNA from the bloom sample. Because this H. akashiwo bloom was associated with a fish kill, and exposure to bloom waters caused sublethal toxic effects on oysters, the resolution of the cause and potential recurrence of the bloom are of importance to fishery management.     

Phytoplankton associations in a small hypertrophic fishpond in East Hungary during a change from bottom-up to top-down control

Phytoplankton species composition and abundance of a shallow hypertrophic fishpond (Mézeshegyi-tó, East Hungary) was studied for the period 1992–1995. The pond showed a pronounced algal periodicity. High-diversity phytoplankton assemblages occurred in spring and autumn. During the winter period, low diversity values were related either to stable community states, when K-strategist species dominated the plankton, or to a large bloom of r-strategist species. In summer, the stable environment led to low-diversity, high-biomass phytoplankton assemblages, dominated by Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. At this time, the growth conditions for Cylindrospermopsiswere akin to those prevailing in a continuous fermentor. The overwhelming dominance of this species lasted for more than four months, during which time, the phytoplankton resembled that of one in the tropics. In August, 1993, an unsuccessful chemical treatment for reducing the algal bloom succeeded in killing the pond's entire population of fish. The large fish-stock comprised the planktivorous silver carp. Although the summer of 1994 was one of the warmest summers of this century, the expected Cylindrospermopsis bloom failed to develop probably because of a higher grazing pressure by large zooplankton. In spite of the fact that the temporal and spatial pattern of the phytoplankton is influenced principally by bottom-up effects, changes in cascading trophic interactions may also considerably influence the species composition and biomass.     

Disturbance events affecting phytoplankton biomass,composition and species diversity in a shallow,eutrophic, temperate lake

The seasonal changes in phytoplankton biomass and species diversity in a shallow, eutrophic Danish lake are described and related to different disturbance events acting on the phytoplankton community.Both the spring diatom maximum and the summer bloom of the filamentous blue-green alga, Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (L.) Ralfs, coincided with low values of phytoplankton species diversity and equitability. Diatom collapse was mainly due to internal modifications as nutrient depletion (Si, P) caused by rapid growth of phytoplankton, and increased grazing activity from zooplankton. A large population of Daphnia longispina O.F. Müller in June effectively removed smaller algal competitors, thus favouring the development of a huge summer bloom (140 mm³ l^–1) of Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. Heavy rainfall and storms in late July increased the loss of Apahnizomenon by out-flow and disturbed the stratification of the lake. These events caused a marked decline in phytoplankton biomass but had no effect on species diversity. A second storm period in late August circulated the lake completely and was followed by a rapid increase in phytoplankton diversity, and a change in the phytoplankton community structure from dominance of large, slow-growing K-selected species (Aphanizomenon) to small, fast-growing r-selected species (cryptomonads).     

Possible importance of algal toxins in the Salton Sea, California

In response to wildlife mortality including unexplained eared grebe (Podiceps nigricollis) die-off events in 1992 and 1994 and other mortality events including large fish kills, a survey was conducted for the presence of algal toxins in the Salton Sea. Goals of this survey were to determine if and when algal toxins are present in the Salton Sea and to describe the phytoplankton composition during those times. A total of 29 samples was collected for toxicity analysis from both nearshore and midlake sites visited biweekly from January to December 1999. Dinoflagellates and diatoms dominated most samples, but some were dominated by a prymnesiophyte (Pleurochrysis pseudoroscoffensis) or a raphidophyte (Chattonella marina). Several types of blooms were observed and sampled. The dinoflagellate Gyrodinium uncatenum formed an extensive, dense (up to 310000 cells ml^–1) and long-lasting bloom during the winter in 1999. A coccolithophorid, Pleurochrysis pseudoroscoffensis, occurred at high densities in surface films and nearshore areas during the spring and summer of 1999. These surface films also contained high densities of one or two other species (an unidentified scrippsielloid, Heterocapsa niei, Chattonella marina). Localized blooms were also observed in the Salton Sea. An unknown small dinoflagellate reached high densities (110000 cells ml^–1) inside Varner Harbor, and an unidentified species of Gymnodinium formed a dense (270000 cells ml^–1) band along part of the southern shoreline during the summer. Three species known to produce toxins in other systems were found. Protoceratium reticulatum (=Gonyaulax grindleyi) and Chattonella marina were found in several samples taken during summer months, and Prorocentrum minimum was found in low densities in several samples. Extracts of most samples, including those containing known toxic species, showed a low level (<10% mortality across all concentrations) of activity in the brine shrimp lethality assay and were not considered toxic. All sample extracts tested in the mouse bioassay showed no activity. One sample extract taken from the bloom of the small dinoflagellate was highly active (100% mortality across all concentrations) in the brine shrimp lethality assay, but the active material could not be isolated. While dense algal blooms are common at the Salton Sea, no evidence gathered in this study suggests that algal toxins are present within phytoplankton cells; however, toxins actively excreted by cells may have been missed. Blooms of phytoplankton likely contribute to wildlife mortality at the Salton Sea. Possible mechanisms including intoxication due to ingestion of feathers in grebes and waterlogging caused by changes in surface tension are discussed.     

Heterosigma akashiwo in central California waters

Heterosigma akashiwo (Hada) gives rise to red tides along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and is known to produce brevetoxins. This investigation establishes baseline information showing the presence of H. akashiwo along the central California coast based on water samples collected from the Santa Cruz pier in Monterey Bay (on the open coast) and the Berkeley pier in San Francisco Bay. Light and electron microscopy as well as two species-specific DNA probe methods based on cell homogenates preparations were employed to detect H. akashiwo during the 2001–2002 field study. The DNA probe methods consisted of a sandwich hybridization assay (SHA), which targets ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and an end-point polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay, which targets internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of rRNA genes. The SHA was used to provide semi-quantitative data showing the intermittent presence of the species during a 13-month period in Monterey Bay. Samples that showed a variety of responses in the SHA (negative as well as the highest) were then subjected to the PCR assay in an attempt to confirm species identification using an independent DNA probe method that employs cell homogenates; samples included those from Monterey Bay and one from a red tide event in San Francisco Bay. SHA and PCR assays agreed on the presence or absence of H. akashiwo. Gene products from two field samples positive for H. akashiwo by PCR were cloned and sequenced and found to be identical to those of that species in GenBank. When the same samples were viewed by light microscopy, however, H. akashiwo cells were only seen in the sample with the highest abundance of that species, as evidenced by SHA. It was extremely difficult to recognize naturally occurring H. akashiwo using light microscopy in field samples that had been preserved with Lugol's iodine, including samples that gave positive results by cell homogenate methods. Results of this study indicate that H. akashiwo is present along the open California coast and could easily be missed in routine phytoplankton surveys. Despite its presence, H. akashiwo does not appear to routinely bloom with sufficient densities to cause harmful outbreaks of the frequency and severity documented in some other coastal environments. Molecular identification techniques may be the preferred approach over light microscopy when there is a need to rapidly screen many samples for fragile, harmful species and those that are otherwise problematic to identify based on their gross morphology alone.     

Triggers of phytoplankton bloom dynamics in permanently eutrophic waters of a South African estuary

The permanently eutrophic Sundays Estuary experiences recurrent harmful algal blooms (HABs) of Heterosigma akashiwo (Raphidophyceae). This study aimed to identify the environmental variables shaping phytoplankton community composition and succession patterns during a typical spring/summer harmful algal bloom (HAB) period. Monitoring of abiotic and phytoplankton variables was undertaken over the period of a month in 2016. Surface water salinity corresponding to mesohaline conditions (9 to 12) was a prerequisite for site selection. During the study, two HABs (>550 µg Chl a l^?1) of H. akashiwo occurred, each lasting for approximately a week in duration. Analyses highlighted nutrient depletion (i.e. nitrate and phosphate concentrations) as the key constraint on bloom duration. When the density of H. akashiwo decreased, the community composition became more diverse with species belonging to Bacillariophyceae and Dinophyceae becoming more abundant; albeit to a lesser degree (<180 µg Chl a l^?1). Dissolved oxygen shifted from super-saturated conditions (>14 mg l^?1) during peak HAB conditions, to instances of bottom water oxygen depletion (2–4 mg l^?1) during the decay phase. These findings highlight the potential severity of transforming a catchment from natural to one that is highly regulated by agricultural practices, while also emphasising the need for management intervention.     

Assessment of Microzooplankton Grazing on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Heterosigma akashiwo</Emphasis> Using a Species- Specific Approach Combining Quantitative Real-Time PCR (QPCR) and Dilution Methods

Delaware’s Inland Bays (DIB) are subject to numerous mixed blooms of harmful raphidophytes each year, and Heterosigma akashiwo is one of the consistently occurring species. Often, Chattonella subsalsa, C. cf. verruculosa, and Fibrocapsa japonica co-occur with H. akashiwo, indicating a dynamic consortium of raphidophyte species. In this study, microzooplankton grazing pressure was assessed as a top–down control mechanism on H. akashiwo populations in mixed communities. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (QPCR) with species-specific primers and probes were used in conjunction with the dilution method to assess grazing pressure on H. akashiwo and other raphidophytes. As a comparison, we measured changes in chlorophyll a (chl a) to determine whole community growth and mortality caused by grazing. We detected grazing on H. akashiwo using QPCR in samples where chl a analyses indicated little or no grazing on the total phytoplankton community. Overall, specific microzooplankton grazing pressure on H. akashiwo ranged from 0.88 to 1.88 day⁻¹ at various sites. Experiments conducted on larger sympatric raphidophytes (C. subsalsa, C. cf. verruculosa and F. japonica) demonstrated no significant microzooplankton grazing on these species. Grazing pressure on H. akashiwo may provide a competitive advantage to other raphidophytes such as Chattonella spp. that are too large to be consumed at high rates by microzooplankton and help to shape the dynamics of this harmful algal bloom consortium. Our results show that QPCR can be used in conjunction with the dilution method for evaluation of microzooplankton grazing pressure on specific phytoplankton species within a mixed community. An erratum to this article can be found at     

Seasonal variation in the diel vertical distribution of the migratory alga Cryptomonas marssonii (Cryptophyceae) in a small,highly humic lake

The diel vertical distribution patterns of a migratory alga Cryptomonas marssonii in a small, steeply stratified humic lake were investigated during a summer season (10 diurnal experiments between May and September) using a close-interval Blakar-type sampler. The results indicate that the cells were phototactic; they were typically concentrated at the surface or subsurface during daylight, while in darkness the highest densities were recorded in deeper water, usually near the upper limit of anoxia. During a dense blue-green bloom in August the cells of C. marssonii were also concentrated by day into the same water layer, where oxygen was depleted. However, the cells seemed to avoid totally anoxic water. Because the vertical distribution pattern of C. marssonii had special diurnal and seasonal characteristics, care is needed when designing a sampling programme for a phytoplankton population dominated by this species.     

Bottom-up controls on a mixed-species HAB assemblage: A comparison of sympatric Chattonella subsalsa and Heterosigma akashiwo (Raphidophyceae) isolates from the Delaware Inland Bays, USA

Recent novel mixed blooms of several species of toxic raphidophytes have caused fish kills and raised health concerns in the highly eutrophic Inland Bays of Delaware, USA. The factors that control their growth and dominance are not clear, including how these multi-species HAB events can persist without competitive exclusion occurring. We compared and contrasted the relative environmental niches of sympatric Chattonella subsalsa and Heterosigma akashiwo isolates from the bays using classic Monod-type experiments. C. subsalsa grew over a temperature range from 10 to 30 °C and a salinity range of 5–30 psu, with optimal growth occurring from 20 to 30 °C and 15 to 25 psu. H. akashiwo had similar upper temperature and salinity tolerances but also lower limits, with growth occurring from 4 to 30 °C and 5 to 30 psu and optimal growth between 16 and 30 °C and 10 and 30 psu. These culture results were confirmed by field observations of bloom occurrences in the Inland Bays. Maximum nutrient-saturated growth rates (μ_max) for C. subsalsa were 0.6 d⁻¹ and half-saturation concentrations for growth (K_s) were 9 μM for nitrate, 1.5 μM for ammonium, and 0.8 μM for phosphate. μ_max of H. akashiwo (0.7 d⁻¹) was slightly higher than C. subsalsa, but K_s values were nearly an order of magnitude lower at 0.3 μM for nitrate, 0.3 μM for ammonium, and 0.2 μM for phosphate. H. akashiwo is able to grow on urea but C. subsalsa cannot, while both can use glutamic acid. Cell yield experiments at environmentally relevant levels suggested an apparent preference by C. subsalsa for ammonium as a nitrogen source, while H. akashiwo produced more biomass on nitrate. Light intensity affected both species similarly, with the same growth responses for each over a range from 100 to 600 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹. Factors not examined here may allow C. subsalsa to persist during multi-species blooms in the bays, despite being competitively inferior to H. akashiwo under most conditions of nutrient availability, temperature, and salinity.     

The association of algicidal bacteria and raphidophyte blooms in South Carolina brackish detention ponds

Over the past 5 years, raphidophyte blooms have been frequently observed along the South Carolina coastal zone. During the 2002, 2003, and 2004 sampling seasons, we investigated temporal fluctuations of algicidal bacteria abundance against raphidophycean flagellates (Heterosigma akashiwo, Chattonella subsalsa, and Fibrocapsa japonica) using the microplate most probable number (MPN) method in three Kiawah Island brackish stormwater detention ponds (K1, K2, and K75). Local axenic isolates of H. akashiwo, C. subsalsa, and F. japonica were obtained and their susceptibility to algicidal bacteria tested. A total of 195 algicidal bacterial strains were isolated from raphidophyte blooms in the study ponds, and 6 of them were identified at the genus level, and the taxonomic specificity of their algicidal activity was tested against local (pond) and nonlocal isolates of raphidophytes (3 species, 10 total strains). In the ponds, a consistent association was found between raphidophyte bloom development and an increase in bacteria algicidal to the bloom species. In 12 of 15 cases, bloom decline followed the increase in algicidal bacteria to maximum abundances. Although variability was found in the taxonomic specificity of the algicidal bacteria effect (i.e. the number of raphidophyte species affected by a particular bacteria strain) and raphidophyte susceptibility (i.e. the number bacteria strains affecting a particular raphidophyte species), a toxic effect was always found when strains of a raphidophyte species were exposed to algicidal bacteria isolated from a bloom caused by that same species. The results suggest that algicidal bacteria may be an important limiting factor in raphidophyte bloom sustenance and can promote bloom decline in brackish lagoonal eutrophic estuaries.     

Phylogeographic characteristics of hypervariable regions in the mitochondrial genome of a cosmopolitan,bloom‐forming raphidophyte,Heterosigma akashiwo

The global distribution of phytoplankton is defined by many events, including long‐term evolutionary processes and shorter time span processes (e.g., global climate change). Furthermore, human‐assisted, unintentional dispersion, including the transport of live fish and spat for aquaculture, and transfer of aquatic microorganisms contained in ship ballast water, may aid the spread of phytoplankton. To understand the phylogeographic history of a species, the development of useful molecular markers is crucial. We previously reported a hypervariable mitochondrial gene in the cosmopolitan bloom‐forming alga, Heterosigma akashiwo. In this study, we identified two additional hypervariable segments in the H. akashiwo mitochondrial genome, one a protein coding sequence, and the other an intergenic region, by comparing the whole mitogenomes of strains obtained from various geographic origins. Interestingly, the newly identified hypervariable protein coding sequence was a paralogue of the previously identified gene, and both sequences showed tendencies to correlate with latitude of geographic origin. However, the hypervariable intergenic sequence did not show a clear correlation with origin. Our results demonstrated that the protein coding sequences may serve as useful tools for understanding the phylogeographic history of H. akashiwo, and they may crucially function in adaptation of the species to the environment.     

Morphology,ultrastructure and taxonomy of the raphidophycean algaHeterosigma akashiwo

Heterosigma akashiwo and its related algae were re-examined by light and electron microscopes using cultured materials including type cultures of bothH. akashiwo andH. inlandica as well as specimens referred to asOlisthodiscus luteus maintained in CCAP and UTEX. All the strains examined were similar to one another in appearance and ultrastructural features. They can be accommodated in a single species,H. akashiwo, which has been invalidly published. In this paper, the genus is validly desribed by providing a Latin diagnosis and designating a type species. Ultrastructural characteristics are also given for the genus.     

Seasonal succession of phytoplankton in a large subarctic river

The factors influencing the abundance of phytoplankton in the Yellowknife River, in the Canadian subarctic, were determined from collections made for 42 consecutive months from June 1975 to November 1978. The spring bloom of plankton occured during April of each year in response to changing light conditions. WhileChlamydomonas lapponica was dominant during this period, it was replaced during the early part of the summer by a rapid succession ofDinobryon species in whichD. cylindricum was followed byD. sociale and in turn byD. bavaricum andD. divergens. Although low nutrient levels permitted the development ofDinobryon during the summer, the abundance of diatoms was greatly limited by the concentrations of SiO₂ (< 0.1 g/m³). Algal densities began to decline in August and reached low overwintering levels by November. The absence of a fall bloom in densities was due to a combination of low temperatures and nutrient levels.P.O. Box 2310, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, X1A 2P7, Canada     

Using quantitative real-time PCR to study competition and community dynamics among Delaware Inland Bays harmful algae in field and laboratory studies

The Delaware Inland Bays (DIB) have experienced harmful algal blooms of dinoflagellates and raphidophytes in recent years. We used quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR) techniques to investigate the community dynamics of three DIB dinoflagellates (Karlodinium veneficum, Gyrodinium instriatum, and Prorocentrum minimum) and one raphidophyte (Heterosigma akashiwo) at a single site in the DIB (IR-32) in summer 2006 relative to salinity, temperature and nutrient concentrations. We also carried out complementary laboratory culture studies. New primers and probes were developed and validated for the 18S rRNA genes in the three dinoflagellates. K. veneficum, H. akashiwo, and G. instriatum were present in almost all samples throughout the summer of 2006. In contrast, P. minimum was undetectable in late June through September, when temperatures ranged from 20 to 30 °C (average 25.7 °C). Dissolved nutrients ranged from 0.1 to 2.8 μM PO₄³⁻ (median = 0.3 μM), 0.7–30.2 μM NO_x (median = 12.9 μM), and 0–19.4 μM NH₄⁺ (median = 0.7 μM). Dissolved N:P ratios covered a wide range from 2.6 to 177, with a median of 40. There was considerable variability in occurrence of the four species versus nutrients, but in general P. minimum and H. akashiwo were most abundant at higher (>40) N:P ratios and dissolved nitrogen concentrations, while K. veneficum and G. instriatum were most abundant at low dissolved N:P ratios (<20) and dissolved nitrogen concentrations < 10 μM. The semi-continuous laboratory competition experiment used mixed cultures of K. veneficum, P. minimum, and H. akashiwo grown at dissolved N:P ratios of 5, 16, and 25. At an N:P of 16 and 25 P. minimum was the dominant alga at the end of the experiment, even at a temperature that was much higher than that at which this alga was found to bloom in the field (27 °C). P. minimum and H. akashiwo had highest densities in the N:P of 25. K. veneficum grew equally well at all three N:P ratios, and was co-dominant at times at an N:P of 5. H. akashiwo had the lowest densities of the three algae in the laboratory experiment. Laboratory and field results showed both interesting similarities and significant differences in the influences of important environmental factors on competition between these harmful algal species, suggesting the need for more work to fully understand HAB dynamics in the DIB.     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of phytoplankton communities along a regulated river system, the Nakdong River, Korea

The longitudinal distribution and seasonal fluctuation of phytoplankton communities was studied along the middle to lower part of a regulated river system (Nakdong River, Korea). Phytoplankton biomass decreased sharply in the middle part of the river (182 km upward the estuary dam), and then increased downstream reaching a maximum at the last sampling station (27 km upward the estuary dam). In contrast, there was little downstream fluctuation in species composition, irrespective of pronounced differences in nutrient concentrations (TN, TP, NO₃, NH₄, PO₄) as well as in algal biomass. In the main river channel, small centric diatoms (Stephanodiscus hantzschii, Cyclotella meneghiniana) and pennate diatoms (Synedra, Fragilaria, Nitzschia) were dominant from winter to early spring (November–April). A mixed community of cryptomonads, centric and pennate diatoms, and coenobial greens (Pediastrum, Scenedesmus) was dominant in late spring (May–June). Blue-green algae (Anabaena, Microcystis, Oscillatoria) were dominant in the summer (July–September). A mid-summer Microcystis bloom occurred at all study sites during the dry season, when discharge was low, though the nutrient concentration varied in each study site. Nutrients appeared everywhere to be in excess of algal requirement and apparently did not influence markedly the downstream and seasonal phytoplankton compositional differences in this river.     

Viral Impacts on Total Abundance and Clonal Composition of the Harmful Bloom-Forming Phytoplankton Heterosigma akashiwo

Recent observations that viruses are very abundant and biologically active components in marine ecosystems suggest that they probably influence various biogeochemical and ecological processes. In this study, the population dynamics of the harmful bloom-forming phytoplankton Heterosigma akashiwo (Raphidophyceae) and the infectious H. akashiwo viruses (HaV) were monitored in Hiroshima Bay, Japan, from May to July 1998. Concurrently, a number of H. akashiwo and HaV clones were isolated, and their virus susceptibilities and host ranges were determined through laboratory cross-reactivity tests. A sudden decrease in cell density of H. akashiwo was accompanied by a drastic increase in the abundance of HaV, suggesting that viruses contributed greatly to the disintegration of the H. akashiwo bloom as mortality agents. Despite the large quantity of infectious HaV, however, a significant proportion of H. akashiwo cells survived after the bloom disintegration. The viral susceptibility of H. akashiwo isolates demonstrated that the majority of these surviving cells were resistant to most of the HaV clones, whereas resistant cells were a minor component during the bloom period. Moreover, these resistant cells were displaced by susceptible cells, presumably due to viral infection. These results demonstrated that the properties of dominant cells within the H. akashiwo population change during the period when a bloom is terminated by viral infection, suggesting that viruses also play an important role in determining the clonal composition and maintaining the clonal diversity of H. akashiwo populations. Therefore, our data indicate that viral infection influences the total abundance and the clonal composition of one host algal species, suggesting that viruses are an important component in quantitatively and qualitatively controlling phytoplankton populations in natural marine environments.     

Alga-lytic activity of Pseudomonas fluorescens against the red tide causing marine alga Heterosigma akashiwo (Raphidophyceae)

A bacterial strain, HAK-13, exhibited strongest activity against Heterosigma akashiwo and was capable of controlling this bloom forming phytoplankton. Based on 16S rDNA sequences and biochemical and morphological characteristics, the strain HAK-13 was determined to be Pseudomonas fluorescens on the basis of 99.9% similarity with reference strains in the DNA databases. The growth of H. akashiwo was strongly suppressed by HAK-13 in all growth phases, with the strongest alga-lytic activity noted against harmful bloom-forming species in the exponential stage (6–22 days). Host range tests showed that HAK-13 also significantly inhibited the growth of Alexandrium tamarense and Cochlodinium polykrikoides but could not destroy Gymnodinium catenatum. P. fluorescens HAK-13 indirectly attacked H. akashiwo by alga-lytic substances that might be located at the compartment of cytoplasmic membrane of the bacterium at a level of 45.86 units/mg of specific activity. The results indicated that P. fluorescens HAK-13 caused cell lysis and death of H. akashiwo, A. tamarense, and C. polykrikoides dramatically and Prorocentrum dentatum slightly. Therefore, P. fluorescens HAK-13 has potential for use as a selective biocontrol of harmful algal blooms.     

Algicidal activity of rhamnolipid biosurfactants produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa

The algicidal activity of the rhamnolipid biosurfactants (the mixture of Rha-Rha-C₁₀-C₁₀ and Rha-C₁₀-C₁₀) produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa was investigated in the present paper. The results indicated that the biosurfactants had potential algicidal effects on the harmful algal bloom (HAB) species, Heterosigma akashiwo. The growth of H. akashiwo was strongly inhibited in medium containing rhamnolipids (0.4–3.0 mg L⁻¹); moreover, the rhamnolipids showed strong lytic activity toward H. akashiwo at higher concentrations (≥4.0 mg L⁻¹). In addition, the effects of the rhamnolipids on the growth of Gymnodinium sp. and Prorocentrum dentatum, another two kinds of HAB species, were also studied. Compared with the dramatic algicidal effect on H. akashiwo, the cells of P. dentatum were inhibited or lysed at higher concentrations (1.0–10.0 mg L⁻¹), while the cells of Gymnodinium sp. were not suppressed with the same treatment, indicating the rhamnolipids had the potential for the selective control of HABs.Morphometric analysis at ultrastructural level by transmission electron micrographs indicated that the extent of ultrastructural damage of the alga was severe at high concentrations of rhamnolipids and during extended periods of contact. The first response occurred in the plasma membrane which partly disintegrated. The lack of membrane facilitated the rhamnolipid biosurfactants into the cells and allowed damage to other organelles, which resulted in the injury of chloroplast, vacuolization of mitochondria and deformation of the cristae, disruption of nuclear membrane and condensation of chromatin in nucleus, suggesting that the lytic activity of rhamnolipids was mainly due to their powerful surfactivity and their tendency to cohere on the surface of phospholipids bimolecular layer of the cells and further destroyed the layers, and then the structure of quasi-membrane configurations inside the cells was disintegrated, following by the irreversible damage to the ultrastructure and the loss of the function of organelles, consequently leading the cells to lyse.     

Bloom formation of Gloeotrichia echinulata and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae in a shallow,eutrophic, Danish lake

Over a period of four years, the seasonal periodicity of dominant phytoplankton species in a shallow, eutrophic Danish lake changed markedly. Cyanophytes prevailed during the summer period of all four years. In the first three years, species of Microcystis, Anabaena and Aphanothece dominated, whereas in the fourth year of investigation, these algae were replaced by Gloeotrichia echinulata (J. E. Smith) Richter and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (L.) Ralfs. The most striking environmental differences in the fourth year as compared with the previous three years, were an increase in tranparency, from about 0.5 meter in 1989–1991 to more than 2 metres preceding the summer maximum in 1992, and a simultaneous occurrence of low oxygen concentrations. A collapse of the fish population was followed by an increased proportion of large Cladocerans in the zooplankton. Improved light conditions at the bottom and grazing pressure from large Cladocerans favoured growth of the large colony forming blue-green algae, Gloeotrichia echinulata and Aphanizomenon flos-aquae. These species germinate from resting spores in the sediment and are able to sustain some growth there before migration to the lake water. The transfer of algal biomass from the bottom sediment to the water phase was accompanied by a marked increase in concentrations of particulate phosphorus and nitrogen in the entire lake.