羊草叶片气体交换参数对温度和土壤水分的响应

 采用生长箱控制的方法研究了羊草(Leymus chinensis)幼苗叶片光合参数对5个温度和5个水分梯度的响应和适应。结果表明：轻度、中度土壤干旱并没有限制羊草叶片的生长,对气体交换参数亦无显著影响,反映了羊草幼苗对土壤水分胁迫的较高耐性。叶片生物量以26 ℃时最大,其它依次为23 ℃、20 ℃、29 ℃和32 ℃。温度升高使气孔导度和蒸腾速率增加, 却使光合速率和水分利用效率降低。水分和温度对叶片生物量、光合速率、气孔导度和蒸腾速率存在显著的交互作用,表明高温加强了干旱对叶片生长和气体交换的影响, 降低了羊草对土壤干旱的适应能力。高温和干旱的交互作用将显著减少我国半干旱地区草原的羊草生产力。     

Response of leaf morphological traits of relict-endemic Symplocos species (S. coccinea and S. speciosa) to elevation and abiotic fluctuations

Abiotic fluctuations in montane ecosystems trigger changes in the hydric functional traits of tree species. These variations are better recognized in tree species inhabiting montane humid ravine slopes with different elevation, as is the case of many areas across the Mexican Neotropical montane forests. Little is known about the response of tree towards elevation gradients and abiotic changes. In this study, we analyzed the leaf morphological variation of two rare and Mexican endemic Symplocos species (S. coccinea and S. speciosa) occurring eastern Mexico on sites with different microclimate and elevation but similar floristic composition. We quantified how the abiotic factors (i.e. canopy openness, soil temperature, soil moisture, and litter depth) and site elevation influence the leaf traits of these tree species. Symplocos coccinea (with toothed leaf margins) is adapted to high humid conditions and high canopy coverage, while S. speciosa (with almost entire leaf margins) is resilient to environments with moisture deficit and high temperatures. Process-based research with fine-spatial scales at montane ecosystems are needed to understand the resilience and morphological variations of montane tree species under climate change worldwide. In this study, we confirmed that the Symplocos leaf morphological traits (i.e. leaf length, leaf width, leaf shape index, leaf base angle and vein density) are strongly influenced by abiotic conditions (i.e. canopy openness, litterfall depth, soil moisture and soil temperature).

     

不同时期毛乌素沙区主要植物种光合作用和蒸腾作用的变化

 采用LI—6000便携式光合分析系统对毛乌素沙区主要植物种油蒿、中间锦鸡儿、旱柳进行了不同时期光合作用,蒸腾作用日进程的测定,并同步测定有效光辐射、空气相对湿度、叶温、气温、胞间CO2浓度、气孔阻力、叶片水势及土壤水势等因子;结果表明：不同时期、不同植物种其光合、蒸腾特征各异;植物的光合、蒸腾与环境因子和植物内部因子之间有密切关系,其中有效光辐射是影响光合作用、蒸腾作用诸因子中的主导因子,而气孔阻力变化则在调节光合和蒸腾中起着重要作用;不同植物种间气孔对环境条件变化的响应程度不同,以中间锦鸡儿最为灵敏;3种植物的水分利用效率表明,中间锦鸡儿的水分利用效率较油蒿、旱柳为高。     

耕作方式对东北雨养区玉米光合与叶绿素荧光特性的影响

在东北地区设置大田试验,研究不同耕作方式下玉米全生育期耕层土壤温度、土壤含水量、叶片光合性能及叶绿素荧光参数的变化特征.结果表明： 耕作方式对土壤水热性能的影响主要体现在播种-拔节阶段,2010-2011年平地播种中耕起垄(PL)和全生育期平作(PP)处理0～40 cm土层土壤体积含水量在出苗期、苗期和拔节期比传统垄作(LL)处理平均提高5.6%和5.2%、4.6%和7.3%及3.9%和4.8%,苗期5 cm土壤最低温度分别比LL处理高1.4和1.3 ℃.由于土壤水热条件的改善,拔节期PL和PP处理的叶片净光合速率(P_n)、蒸腾速率(T_r)等指标显著高于LL处理,而PSII潜在活性(F_v/F_o)和PSII最大光化学效率(F_v/F_m)无显著差异,表明气孔导度和气孔限制值等气孔因素是导致光合作用差异的主要原因;灌浆期叶片P_n和T_r则以LL和PL处理显著高于PP处理,这主要是由于PP处理在强降雨时期经历了涝渍灾害,光合作用受到抑制.可见PL处理通过改善土壤水热条件增强了玉米光合性能,进而提高了籽粒产量.     

Air humidity as key determinant of morphogenesis and productivity of the rare temperate woodland fern Polystichum braunii

(1) Most ferns are restricted to moist and shady habitats, but it is not known whether soil moisture or atmospheric water status are decisive limiting factors, or if both are equally important. (2) Using the rare temperate woodland fern Polystichum braunii, we conducted a three‐factorial climate chamber experiment (soil moisture (SM) × air humidity (RH) × air temperature (T)) to test the hypotheses that: (i) atmospheric water status (RH) exerts a similarly large influence on the fern's biology as soil moisture, and (ii) both a reduction in RH and an increase in air temperature reduce vigour and growth. (3) Nine of 11 morphological, physiological and growth‐related traits were significantly influenced by an increase in RH from 65% to 95%, leading to higher leaf conductance, increased above‐ and belowground productivity, higher fertility, more epidermal trichomes and fewer leaf deformities under high air humidity. In contrast, soil moisture variation (from 66% to 70% in the moist to ca. 42% in the dry treatment) influenced only one trait (specific leaf area), and temperature variation (15 °C versus 19 °C during daytime) only three traits (leaf conductance, root/shoot ratio, specific leaf area); RH was the only factor affecting productivity. (4) This study is the first experimental proof for a soil moisture‐independent air humidity effect on the growth of terrestrial woodland ferns. P. braunii appears to be an air humidity hygrophyte that, whithin the range of realistic environmental conditions set in this study, suffers more from a reduction in RH than in soil moisture. A climate warming‐related increase in summer temperatures, however, seems not to directly threaten this endangered species.     

The phenology of fine root growth in a maple-dominated ecosystem: relationships with some soil properties

A two-year study was undertaken in a maple-dominated watershed of southern Québec, Canada, to examine relationships between trends in fine root growth, stem diameter growth, soil moisture, soil temperature, mineralized-N and extractable-P. Until September, soil temperature was consistently higher in 1995 than in 1994. Apart from the first sampling in mid-May, soil moisture was higher in 1994 than in 1995. In 1994, most fine roots were produced before leaf expansion, whereas in 1995, fine root production peaked in July. Annual fine root production was estimated to be 2.7 times higher in 1994 than in 1995. Stem growth was strongly associated with the seasonal and annual variation in soil temperature. Root and diameter growth were asynchronous in 1994 but not in 1995. Fine root production was associated with two groups of variables: a soil fertility (mineralized-N and extractable-P) group and a physical soil environment (moisture and temperature) group. Our results are consistent with the negative effect of high soil-N fertility on fine root production but are inconclusive as to the positive effect of high soil-P fertility. Soil conditions that are detrimental to root growth such as high N availability and anaerobiosis could modify the normal dynamics of fine root growth.     

Significance of leaf orientation for leaf temperature in an amazonian sclerophyll vegetation

Summary The influence of leaf orientation on leaf temperature has been studied in an sclerophyll vegetation of the Amazon basin, which grows on white sandy soils of very low water retention capacity and variable depth of the water table.Leaf size of the species studied is mainly mesophyllous (sensu Raunkiaer). The high degree of leaf inclination in all species is very characteristic; 55% of the leaves present inclination angles (relative to the vertical) smaller than 45°.Water potential is generally high, not being lower than –14 bars. Leaf resistance increases toward noon during the course of sunny days, indicating either water stress at leaf level or the influence of low relative humidity on stomata opening.Leaf temperature under sunny conditions reflects the influence of leaf orientation on the amount of radiation absorbed by the leaf. Temperature differences recorded range from 1.8–5.4° C. The difference depends on leaf angle, leaf color and leaf diffusion resistance during the period of measurement.Analysis of the relationship between leaf angle and leaf temperature, using Gates leaf energy balance, shows that under the conditions prevailing at noon in sunny days, leaf angles smaller than 50° are effective in reducing leaf temperature within a wide range of leaf resistances to water vapor transfer.Contribution from the Venezuela MAB-1 Programm, partially supported by the National Research Council (CONICIT) and the Organization of American States (OEA)     

黄土丘陵区辽东栎树干液流特征对边材面积和土壤水分的响应

运用Granier热扩散探针法对半干旱黄土丘陵区不同胸径辽东栎进行树干液流测定,并对太阳辐射、空气温湿度、降水量、土壤水分等环境因子进行同步观测,分析不同土壤水分条件下不同胸径辽东栎的树干液流变化特征及其对环境因子的响应.结果表明:辽东栎液流日变化特征总体上与太阳辐射和空气水汽压亏缺呈相同趋势,但液流峰值出现时间早于两个气象环境因子的峰值时间.同一树木个体在土壤水分条件较高时期的树干液流通量高于土壤水分较低时期.在相同土壤水分条件下,大径级样本液流通量显著高于小径级样本.采用指数饱和曲线函数对液流通量与太阳辐射和空气水汽压亏缺以及两因子的综合指标进行拟合,效果良好,可以反映液流通量对气象环境因子的响应规律.不同胸径辽东栎在不同土壤水分条件下的拟合曲线特征和拟合参数差异表明,在土壤水分较高时段,液流通量可快速上升至饱和值;在土壤水分较低时段,液流通量上升缓慢.小径级样本对土壤水分变化的反应更加剧烈.单位空气水汽压亏缺的日液流通量值(日液流通量与空气水汽压亏缺的比值)在两种土壤水分条件下的比值与边材面积呈线性相关,且小径级样本的斜率高于大径级样本,说明小径级样本对土壤水分的变化较为敏感,在土壤含水量较低时段,大径级样本较厚的导水组织对土壤水分供应不足起到了缓冲作用.     

北方典型沼泽湿地高低土壤水分下植物群落特征

北方沼泽湿地在水源供给、缓解水土流失、遏制草地沙化等方面具有重要作用,明确其植物群落物种组成和多样性特征对提升其生态系统服务功能具有重要意义。目前,在北方地区开展大尺度湿地植被调查的研究仍相对较少。土壤水分是驱动植物群落发展的主导环境因素之一,为了解高低土壤水分背景下湿地植物群落特征差异及关键驱动要素,对我国7个北方典型沼泽湿地的植物群落物种组成及多样性特征进行了调查,分析了植物群落物种组成及多样性特征与环境因子的关系,以及沼泽湿地植物群落内克隆植物的分布特征。研究结果发现不同沼泽湿地的植物群落物种组成和多样性差异显著,但无明显的地带性分布规律,物种分布呈现区域性。群落物种多样性受降水、温度、土壤养分等多种环境因素的共同影响。沼泽湿地高低土壤水分背景下植物群落的物种组成和多样性差异显著,低土壤水分下植物群落物种多样性指数显著高于高土壤水分下植物群落。低土壤水分下物种多样性主要受降水和总氮影响,而高土壤水分下物种多样性主要受温度和总磷的影响。高土壤水分下克隆植物物种数和盖度在沼泽湿地植物中占有较高的比例,表明克隆植物比非克隆植物更适应高土壤水分环境。研究结果表明了7个沼泽湿地植被的区域性...     

盘锦湿地芦苇(Phragmites communis)群落蒸发散主导影响因子

利用2005年全年盘锦芦苇湿地梯度观测和涡动相关系统的监测数据,对芦苇群落的蒸发散变化规律及其主导影响因子分析表明,不同月份芦苇群落蒸发散日变化呈现出相同的变化趋势,即早晚低、中午高的单峰型曲线;芦苇群落蒸发散主要受当地气象因素、植被生长状况和生理生态特征的影响.相关分析表明,芦苇湿地蒸发散与净辐射、气温、地表温度、相对湿度、风速、土壤含水量等环境因素的变化都有很好的响应.回归分析表明影响生长季主要因素有:净辐射、土壤含水量、相对湿度、气温和地表温度;影响非生长季主要有:净辐射、地表温度和风速.同时,植被生长状况和生理生态特征对蒸发散也有显著影响,其中叶面积指数与气孔导度是芦苇群落蒸发散的主导影响因子.     

干旱半干旱区不同环境因素对土壤呼吸影响研究进展

土壤呼吸是全球陆地生态系统碳循环的重要环节,也是全球气候变化的关键生态过程。阐明和探讨影响土壤呼吸的各类环境因素,对准确评估陆地生态系统碳收支具有重要意义。干旱半干旱区是陆地生态系统的重要组成部分,研究该区域影响土壤呼吸的环境因素有助于深刻了解干旱半干旱区土壤碳循环过程。就土壤温度、土壤水分、降水、土壤有机质等非生物因子及植被类型、地上、地下生物量、土壤凋落物等生物因子两个方面对土壤呼吸的影响进行了综述。以干旱半干旱区的研究进展为主要论述对象,在上述因素中重点阐述了土壤温度、水分及其耦合作用下土壤呼吸的响应,并就土壤呼吸的Q10值及各影响因素间的交互作用进行归纳总结。在此基础上,说明了土壤温度和水分是影响干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸的主要因素。为了更准确的估算干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸速率,综合分析多种因子的交互影响,提出目前土壤呼吸研究存在的问题和今后重点关注的方向:1)不同尺度下干旱半干旱区土壤呼吸的研究;2)荒漠生态系统土壤呼吸研究;3)非生长季土壤呼吸研究;4)多因素协同作用土壤呼吸模型建立;5)测量方法的改进与完善。     

太湖流域丘陵区两种土地利用类型土壤水分分布控制因素

为探究太湖流域丘陵区典型土地利用类型(如竹林地和茶园)土壤水分的控制因素,在不同深度土壤水分定期观测的基础上,根据前7d降雨量将研究时段划分为干旱状态和湿润状态,利用分类与回归树(CART)方法得出不同干湿状态下土壤水分分布的主控因子,并借助典范对应分析(CCA)定量分析不同土地利用类型、不同土壤深度土壤水分格局与环境因子关系。结果表明:(1)高程、土地利用类型和土层厚度对土壤水分分布的相对贡献率最大,但在不同干湿状态下其影响程度存在差异;(2)干旱状态时土壤水分主要受高程、坡度、地形湿度指数(TWI)和剖面曲率等地形因素的作用,而土层厚度和粘粒也分别为0—20 cm和20—40 cm深度土壤水分的主控因子;(3)在湿润状态下,茶园0—20 cm土壤水分的主控因素为地形因子,在20—40 cm则以土壤性质为主,竹林地两个深度的土壤水分受地形和土壤性质的作用都很强,其中20—40 cm深度土壤水分与环境因子的关系较0—20 cm深度更为复杂。     

Evapotranspiration of Phragmites communis community in Panjin wetland and its control factors

Based on the data in the whole year of 2005 using microclimate gradient observation, eddy covariance observation, and plant ecophysiological observation at Panjin Wetland Ecosystem Research Station, Institute of Atmospheric Environment, China Meteorological Administration, the daily evapotranspiration variation and the control factors of the Phragmites communis community are analyzed. The results show that daily evapotranspiration variation among different months can be expressed as a single-peak curve that is lower in the morning and evening, and higher around noon. Meteorological and biological factors affect the evapotranspiration obviously. According to the correlation analysis, the evapotranspiration variation of Phragmites communis wetland has good correspondence with such environmental factors as net radiation, air temperature, surface temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and soil moisture. Regression analysis indicated that the major factors during the growing season include net radiation, soil moisture, relative humidity, air temperature and surface temperature, while the factors during the non-growing season include net radiation, soil surface temperature and wind speed. At the same time, growth situation and biological characteristics of vegetation have significant effects on the evapotranspiration of Phragmites communis, especially the leaf index and leaf conductance.     

Functional and evolutionary correlations of steep leaf angles in the mexical shrubland

In the evergreen shrubland vegetation of Mexico (mexical), most of the species are sclerophyllous woody plants with steep leaf angles. This architectural pattern has been interpreted as a strategy to cope with water shortages and high radiation. However, the current association between evergreenness and steep leaf angles across mexical plant species could be the result of an adaptive association achieved through correlated evolutionary change between both traits or, alternatively, may be the result of common evolutionary ancestry. In this study, we quantified leaf angle in 28 dominant species under a phylogenetic framework and evaluated the functional implications of the observed range of leaf angles in terms of leaf temperature, water potentials and transpiration by combining manipulative experiments restraining leaves horizontally with microclimatic and stomatal conductance measurements in selected species and energy balance calculations. Horizontally restrained leaves exhibited reduced water potentials and stomatal conductances, and significantly increased temperatures and transpiration rates. Steeply inclined leaves operated near air temperatures and could sustain relatively high stomatal conductances during the dry season since they were associated with low transpiration rates. Phylogenetic analyses showed that steep leaf angles evolved in a correlated fashion in evergreen species. The functional consequences of leaf angle together with the phylogenetic analysis indicate the adaptive nature of this trait which allows the evergreen species to cope with arid conditions and therefore to persist within the mexical community.     

Field response of wheat to arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and drought stress

Mycorrhizal plants often have greater tolerance to drought than nonmycorrhizal plants. This study was conducted to determine the effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi inoculation on growth, grain yield and mineral acquisition of two winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cultivars grown in the field under well-watered and water-stressed conditions. Wheat seeds were planted in furrows after treatment with or without the AM fungi Glomus mosseae or G. etunicatum. Roots were sampled at four growth stages (leaf, tillering, heading and grain-filling) to quantify AM fungi. There was negligible AM fungi colonization during winter months following seeding (leaf sampling in February), when soil temperature was low. During the spring, AM fungi colonization increased gradually. Mycorrhizal colonization was higher in well-watered plants colonized with AM fungi isolates than water-stressed plants. Plants inoculated with G. etunicatum generally had higher colonization than plants colonized with G. mosseae under both soil moisture conditions. Biomass and grain yields were higher in mycorrhizal than nonmycorrhizal plots irrespective of soil moisture, and G. etunicatum inoculated plants generally had higher biomass and grain yields than those colonized by G. mosseae under either soil moisture condition. The mycorrhizal plants had higher shoot P and Fe concentrations than nonmycorrhizal plants at all samplings regardless of soil moisture conditions. The improved growth, yield and nutrient uptake in wheat plants reported here demonstrate the potential of mycorrhizal inoculation to reduce the effects of drought stress on wheat grown under field conditions in semiarid areas of the world.     

Growth and nitrogen fixation ofAeschynomene under water stressed conditions

Summary Studies on the tolerance ofAeschynomene americana L. to periods of flooding or soil moisture deficit were conducted in an attempt to elucidate nitrogen fixation as affected by soil moisture. Nitrogenase activity was not reduced significantly in pot-grown Aeschynomene plants subjected to flooding in greenhouse conditions. After 20 days of withholding water from the soil, nitrogenase activities of the drought-stressed plants were much lower than those of either the well-watered or flooded plants. Leaf water potentials were similar in flooded and control plants; however, the droughted plants had leaf water potentials that were 4 bars lower than those of the control plants. Aeschynomene plants were tolerant to long-term periods of flooding, but exhibited a reduction in nitrogenase activity and leaf water status when subjected to soil moisture deficits.     

Soil Respiration in the Cold Desert Environment of the Colorado Plateau (USA): Abiotic Regulators and Thresholds

Decomposition is central to understanding ecosystem carbon exchange and nutrient-release processes. Unlike mesic ecosystems, which have been extensively studied, xeric landscapes have received little attention; as a result, abiotic soil-respiration regulatory processes are poorly understood in xeric environments. To provide a more complete and quantitative understanding about how abiotic factors influence soil respiration in xeric ecosystems, we conducted soil- respiration and decomposition-cloth measurements in the cold desert of southeast Utah. Our study evaluated when and to what extent soil texture, moisture, temperature, organic carbon, and nitrogen influence soil respiration and examined whether the inverse-texture hypothesis applies to decomposition. Within our study site, the effect of texture on moisture, as described by the inverse texture hypothesis, was evident, but its effect on decomposition was not. Our results show temperature and moisture to be the dominant abiotic controls of soil respiration. Specifically, temporal offsets in temperature and moisture conditions appear to have a strong control on soil respiration, with the highest fluxes occurring in spring when temperature and moisture were favorable. These temporal offsets resulted in decomposition rates that were controlled by soil moisture and temperature thresholds. The highest fluxes of CO₂ occurred when soil temperature was between 10 and 16 °C and volumetric soil moisture was greater than 10%. Decomposition-cloth results, which integrate decomposition processes across several months, support the soil-respiration results and further illustrate the seasonal patterns of high respiration rates during spring and low rates during summer and fall. Results from this study suggest that the parameters used to predict soil respiration in mesic ecosystems likely do not apply in cold-desert environments.     

Macrofauna assemblage composition and soil moisture interact to affect soil ecosystem functions

Changing climatic conditions and habitat fragmentation are predicted to alter the soil moisture conditions of temperate forests. It is not well understood how the soil macrofauna community will respond to changes in soil moisture, and how changes to species diversity and community composition may affect ecosystem functions, such as litter decomposition and soil fluxes. Moreover, few studies have considered the interactions between the abiotic and biotic factors that regulate soil processes. Here we attempt to disentangle the interactive effects of two of the main factors that regulate soil processes at small scales - moisture and macrofauna assemblage composition. The response of assemblages of three common temperate soil invertebrates (Glomeris marginata Villers, Porcellio scaber Latreille and Philoscia muscorum Scopoli) to two contrasting soil moisture levels was examined in a series of laboratory mesocosm experiments. The contribution of the invertebrates to the leaf litter mass loss of two common temperate tree species of contrasting litter quality (easily decomposing Fraxinus excelsior L. and recalcitrant Quercus robur L.) and to soil CO₂ fluxes were measured. Both moisture conditions and litter type influenced the functioning of the invertebrate assemblages, which was greater in high moisture conditions compared with low moisture conditions and on good quality vs. recalcitrant litter. In high moisture conditions, all macrofauna assemblages functioned at equal rates, whereas in low moisture conditions there were pronounced differences in litter mass loss among the assemblages. This indicates that species identity and assemblage composition are more important when moisture is limited. We suggest that complementarity between macrofauna species may mitigate the reduced functioning of some species, highlighting the importance of maintaining macrofauna species richness.     

土壤干旱胁迫下非水力根信号调控夏玉米气体交换对大气环境的响应

对不同程度土壤干旱胁迫下夏玉米非水力根信号的产生以及气体交换过程对大气环境的响应进行了试验研究。充足底墒播种后采用3个土壤水分处理等级(0~200cm土壤相对湿度为>80%、60%~70%、40%~50%,代号为W T1、W T2和W T3)。生育期内遮去自然降水。试验结果表明,在拔节期轻度和中度土壤干旱胁迫的情况下,玉米根系合成大量ABA传输到地上部分,参与控制气孔开度和气体交换过程对大气环境变化的响应并调节水分消耗。在日变化过程中,当光强和水汽压亏缺较高时,由于蒸腾速率较高,非水力根信号物质向冠层的传输速率也较高,ABA在叶片中的累积影响了气孔开张对光强响应的敏感度,气孔开度受到抑制,并且随着ABA累积和浓度的增加,气孔抑制作用越强;在水汽压亏缺较低的情况下,非水力根信号物质向冠层的传输速率较低,ABA的代谢过程以及再分配过程能够保证这种信号物质保持在低水平,从而保证一定程度的气孔开度和光合、蒸腾速率。这种策略能够使夏玉米在轻、中等干旱条件下保证最大的光合作用,同时在可能的胁迫情况下降低蒸腾作用以提高水分利用效率。     

Different soil moisture conditions change the outcome of the ectomycorrhizal symbiosis between Rhizopogon species and Pinus muricata

The outcome of species interactions often depends on the environmental conditions under which they occur. In this study, we tested how different soil moisture conditions affected the outcome of the ectomycorrhizal symbiosis between three Rhizopogon species and Pinus muricata in a factorial growth chamber experiment. We found that when grown in 7% soil moisture conditions, ectomycorrhizal plants had similar biomass, photosynthesis, conductance, and total leaf nitrogen as non-mycorrhizal plants. However, when grown at 13% soil moisture, ectomycorrhizal plants had significantly greater shoot biomass, higher photosynthetic and conductance rates, and higher total leaf nitrogen than non-mycorrhizal plants. The differences in plant response by mycorrhizal status in the two soil moisture treatments corresponded with evidence of water limitation experienced by the fungi, which had much lower colonization at 7% compared to 13% soil moisture. Our results suggest that the outcome of the ectomycorrhizal symbiosis can be context-dependent and that fluctuating environmental conditions may strongly affect the way plants and fungi interact. Peter G. Kennedy and Kabir G. Peay contributed equally to this work and order was determined by a coin toss.