IQM1基因过量表达对拟南芥气孔运动及根系生长的影响

拟南芥钙调素结合蛋白IQM家族共有6个成员,已证实IQM1是一个不依赖Ca2+的钙调素结合蛋白,其功能缺失突变体iqm1表现气孔开度小和根短的表型,而且突变体气孔开度并不因光、暗、脱落酸等诱导而变大或变小。该实验构建了IQM1基因双元表达载体并转化拟南芥,通过分子筛选及IQM1表达量分析,获得了IQM1基因过量表达植株。表型分析发现,IQM1过量表达植株在光诱导气孔开放处理后气孔开放度明显比野生型和iqm1-1增大,在暗诱导气孔关闭处理后气孔开度则显著变小;IQM1过量表达植株的主根比野生型和iqm1-1长,侧根数量比野生型和iqm1-1多,但IQM1过量表达对植株的生长形态、抽薹期、开花期及座果等方面却没有明显影响。研究表明,IQM1基因在植物气孔运动及根系生长中起着重要作用。     

蚕豆下表皮细胞外钙调素的存在及其对气孔运动的调节

细胞外钙调素可能作为多肽第一信使,调节细胞增殖、花粉萌发、特定基因表达等生理过程.气孔能灵敏地对外界刺激作出反应,快速开闭.本文用免疫电镜和免疫荧光显微镜技术证明保卫细胞及其它表皮细胞胞外都存在钙调素.外源纯化钙调素能促进气孔关闭、抑制气孔开放,最适浓度为10-8mol/L;不能透过质膜的大分子钙调素拮抗剂W7-agarose和钙调素抗血清都能抑制气孔关闭、促进开放,说明保卫细胞的内源胞外钙调素确实能促进气孔关闭、抑制开放,而且只能在细胞外起作用.推测在自然情况下,保卫细胞内源胞外钙调素可能作为胞外第一信使和其它信号分子一起调节气孔的开关运动,而且可能在环境刺激与细胞响应之间起重要作用.     

A reassessment of the intervention of calmodulin in the regulation of stomatal movement

Commelina cammunis L., a monocotyledonous plant whose stomata are highly sensitive to calcium ions, was used to study calmodulin (CaM) involvement in stomatal movements. CaM was detected and quantified in guard cell and mesophyll cell protoplasts by western blot and by ⁴⁵Ca²⁺-overlays. CaM was found to be 3- to 7-fold more abundant on a per protein basis in guard cell than in mesophyll cell protoplasts. Numerous guard cell proteins that bind CaM in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner were detected by gold-labelled CaM overlays. Using bioassays with epidermal strips, different CaM-antagonists were found to induce a net stimulation of stomatal opening in darkness or under illumination (trifluoperazine > compound 48/80 ∼ fluphenazine > W7 > W5). As CaM is frequently involved in the regulation of phosphorylation processes, the effects of different inhibitors of protein kinases on stomatal movements were studied. In red plus blue light, a promotion of the stomatal aperture was observed in the nanomolar range with K252a and KT5926 and in the micromolar range with KT5720 ≫ ML7 ∼ ML9 ≫ H7 > KN62. Only the inhibitors with a high specificity for Ca²⁺-CaM dependent protein kinases (K252a, KT5926, ML7, ML9) triggered a stomatal opening in darkness and increased stomatal aperture in red plus blue light. Taken together, these data strongly suggest that a Ca²⁺- or a Ca²⁺-CaM-dependent protein kinase plays a central role in the calcium transduction pathway leading to the maintaining of stomatal closure.     

A reassessment of the intervention of calmodulin in the regulation of stomatal movement

Commelina cammunis L., a monocotyledonous plant whose stomata are highly sensitive to calcium ions, was used to study calmodulin (CaM) involvement in stomatal movements. CaM was detected and quantified in guard cell and mesophyll cell protoplasts by western blot and by ⁴⁵Ca²⁺-overlays. CaM was found to be 3- to 7-fold more abundant on a per protein basis in guard cell than in mesophyll cell protoplasts. Numerous guard cell proteins that bind CaM in a Ca²⁺-dependent manner were detected by gold-labelled CaM overlays. Using bioassays with epidermal strips, different CaM-antagonists were found to induce a net stimulation of stomatal opening in darkness or under illumination (trifluoperazine > compound 48/80 ≅ fluphenazine > W7 > W5). As CaM is frequently involved in the regulation of phosphorylation processes, the effects of different inhibitors of protein kinases on stomatal movements were studied. In red plus blue light, a promotion of the stomatal aperture was observed in the nanomolar range with K252a and KT5926 and in the micromolar range with KT5720 ≫ ML7 ≅ ML9 ≫ H7 > KN62. Only the inhibitors with a high specificity for Ca²⁺-CaM dependent protein kinases (K252a, KT5926, ML7, ML9) triggered a stomatal opening in darkness and increased stomatal aperture in red plus blue light. Taken together, these data strongly suggest that a Ca²⁺- or a Ca²⁺-CaM-dependent protein kinase plays a central role in the calcium transduction pathway leading to the maintaining of stomatal closure.     

蚕豆下表皮细胞外钙调素的存在及其对气孔运动的调节

细胞外钙调素可能作为多肽第一信使,调节细胞增殖,花粉萌发,特定基因表达等生理过程,气孔能灵敏地对外界刺激作出反应,快速开闭,本文用免疫电镜和免疫荧光显微镜技术证明保卫细胞及其它表皮细胞胞外都存在钙调素;外源纯化钙调素能促进气孔关闭,抑制气孔开放,最适浓度为10^-8mol/L;不能透过质膜的大分子钙调素拮抗剂W—-agarose和钙调素抗血清都能抑制气孔关闭,促进开放,说明保卫细胞的内源胞外钙调素确实能促进气孔关闭,抑制开放。而且只能在细胞外起作用,推测在自然情况下,保卫细胞内源胞外钙调素可能作为胞外第一信使和其它信号分子一起调节气孔的开关运动,而且可能在环境刺激与细胞响应之间起重要作用。     

Roles of intracellular hydrogen peroxide accumulation in abscisic acid signaling in Arabidopsis guard cells

Reactive oxygen species (ROS), including hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), are among the important second messengers in abscisic acid (ABA) signaling in guard cells. In this study, to investigate specific roles of H₂O₂ in ABA signaling in guard cells, we examined the effects of mutations in the guard cell-expressed catalase (CAT) genes, CAT1 and CAT3, and of the CAT inhibitor 3-aminotriazole (AT) on stomatal movement. The cat3 and cat1 cat3 mutations significantly reduced CAT activities, leading to higher basal level of H₂O₂ in guard cells, when assessed by 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein, whereas they did not affect stomatal aperture size under non-stressed condition. In addition, AT-treatment at concentrations that abolish CAT activities, showed trivial affect on stomatal aperture size, while basal H₂O₂ level increased extensively. In contrast, cat mutations and AT-treatment potentiated ABA-induced stomatal closure. Inducible ROS production triggered by ABA was observed in these mutants and wild type as well as in AT-treated guard cells. These results suggest that ABA-inducible cytosolic H₂O₂ elevation functions in ABA-induced stomatal closure, while constitutive increase of H₂O₂ do not cause stomatal closure.     

拟南芥IQM3基因的表达分析及其突变体的鉴定

对拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)IQM3基因的功能进行了分析.结果表明,推定IQM3的启动子中存在多种光、非生物胁迫和植物激素反应的顺式作用元件,可能参与植物对环境变化的反应.RT-PCR分析表明,IQM3在拟南芥莲座叶、花序叶、茎、花和根中的表达较强,但在荚果中的表达很弱;IQM3基因的T-DNA插入突变体iqm3-1和iqm3-2分别是功能缺失和超表达突变体,对这些突变体的表型分析表明,IQM3基因与种子萌发及幼苗子叶膨大有密切关系.     

褪黑素调节烟草丁香假单胞菌抗性的功能研究

为分析褪黑素(N-乙酰-5-甲氧基色胺)在植物先天免疫中的功能及调控机理,研究以病原菌丁香假单胞杆菌(Pseudomonas syringae pv.tomato DC3000,Pst DC3000)—烟草互作系统为模型,检测了病原菌侵染对烟草褪黑素相关基因表达的影响,并探讨了褪黑素对植物叶片病原菌生长以及气孔开度和活性氧自由基(reactive oxygen species,ROS)含量的影响以及调控机理。结果表明:(1)Pst DC3000处理提高了烟草褪黑素合成(NtSNAT1)和受体(NtPMTR1)基因表达,且外源褪黑素处理降低了叶片中的病原菌含量。(2)与野生型植物相比,过表达大豆GmSNAT1基因显著提高了转基因烟草中内源褪黑素含量和NtPMTR1的表达,且转基因烟草叶片中的Pst DC3000菌落数显著下降。(3)外源褪黑素和细菌鞭毛蛋白多肽flg22处理诱导了野生型和转基因烟草保卫细胞中ROS产生和气孔关闭,且转基因植物对褪黑素和flg22诱导的气孔关闭和ROS产生比野生型烟草更加敏感。综上所述,研究表明褪黑素可能通过受体NtPMTR1介导的信号途径促进保卫细胞ROS产生,诱导气孔关闭,从而降低病原菌Pst DC3000的入侵。     

Depolymerization of actin cytoskeleton is involved in stomatal closure-induced by extracellular calmodulin in Arabidopsis

CaM ubiquitously presents inside eukaryotic cells. CaM抯 gene expression and its subcellular localization are regulated by light, osmotic stress, pathogens, plant hormones, etc.[1]. Intracellular CaM of plant displays important functions in pathogenesis and wounding reaction[2] and hypersensitive response[3]. CaM has been found extracellular spaces in many plant species, such as soluble extracts of oat coleoptile cell walls[4], the wheat coleoptile cell walls[5], maize root tips cell walls[6…     

Depolymerization of actin cytoskeleton is involved in stomatal closure-induced by extracellular calmodulin in<Emphasis Type="Italic">Arabidopsis</Emphasis>

Extracellular calmodulin(CaM)plays significant roles in many physiological processes,but little is known about its mechanism of regulating stomatal movements.In this paper,whether CaM exists in the guard cell walls of Arabidopsis and whether depolymerization of actin cytoskeleton is involved in extracellular CaM-induced stomatal closing are investigated.It is found that CaM exists in guard cell walls of Arabidopsis,and its molecular weight is about 17 kD.Bioassay using CaM antagonists W7-agarose and anti-CaM serum shows that the endogenous extracellular CaM promotes stomatal closure and delays stomatal opening.The long radial actin filaments in guard cells undergo disruption in a time-dependent manner during exogenous CaM-induced stomatal closing.Pharmacological experiments show that depolymerization of actin cytoskeleton enhances the effect of exogenous CaM-induced stomatal closing and polymerization reduces the effect.We also find that exogenous CaM triggers an increase in [Ca2+]cyt of guard cells.If [Ca2+]cyt increase is blocked with EGTA,exogenous CaM-induced stomatal closure is inhibited.These results indicate that extracellular CaM causes elevation of [Ca2+]cyt in guard cells,subsequently resulting in disruption of actin filaments and finally leading to guard cells closure.     

Gene trap lines identify Arabidopsis genes expressed in stomatal guard cells

We employed a gene trap approach to identify genes expressed in stomatal guard cells of Arabidopsis thaliana . We examined patterns of reporter gene expression in approximately 20 000 gene trap lines, and recovered five lines with exclusive or preferential expression in stomata. The screen yielded two insertions in annotated genes, encoding the CYTOCHROME P450 86A2 (CYP86A2) mono-oxygenase, and the PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE 3 (AtPDR3) transporter. Expression of the trapped genes in guard cells was confirmed by RT-PCR experiments in purified stomata. Examination of homozygous mutant lines revealed that abscisic acid (ABA)-induced stomatal closure was impaired in the atpdr3 mutant. In three lines, insertions occurred outside transcribed units. Expression analysis of the genes surrounding the trapping inserts identified two genes selectively expressed in guard cells, corresponding to a PP2C PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE and an unknown expressed protein gene. Statistical analyses of the chromosomal regions tagged by the gene trap insertions revealed an over-represented [A/T]AAAG motif, previously described as an essential cis -active element for gene expression in stomata. The lines described in this work identify novel genes involved in the modulation of stomatal activity, provide useful markers for the study of developmental pathways in guard cells, and are a valuable source of guard cell-specific promoters.     

Dynamic Organization of Microtubules in Guard Cells of Viciafaba L. with Diurnal Cycle

Stomatal movement is regulated by changes in the volume of guardcells, thought to be mainly controlled by an osmo-regulatorysystem. In the present study, we examined the additional involvementof cytoskeletal events in the regulation of stomatal movement.Microtubules (MTs) in guard cells of Viciafaba L., grown undersunlight, were observed during the day and night by immunofluorescencemicroscopy. Cortical MTs began to be organized in a radial arrayat dawn and increased in numbers in the morning following theincrease in the stomatal aperture size. Thereafter, MTs becamelocalized near the nucleus and began to be destroyed from theevening to midnight, following the decrease in stomatal aperturesize. These diurnal changes in MT organization were observedeven two days after transfer from natural light condition tototal darkness, and were accompanied by corresponding changesin stomatal aperture. The increase in stomatal aperture sizein the early morning was inhibited by 50 µM propyzaraide,which destroys cortical MTs in guard cells, whereas the decreasein aperture size in the evening was suppressed by 10 µMtax-ol, which stabilizes cortical MTs. These results suggestthat radially-organized cortical MTs of guard cells may controldiurnal stomatal movement. (Received September 3, 1997; Accepted November 5, 1997)     

F-box protein DOR functions as a novel inhibitory factor for abscisic acid-induced stomatal closure under drought stress in Arabidopsis,

Guard cells, which form stoma in leaf epidermis, sense and integrate environmental signals to modulate stomatal aperture in response to diverse conditions. Under drought stress, plants synthesize abscisic acid (ABA), which in turn induces a rapid closing of stoma, to prevent water loss by transpiration. However, many aspects of the molecular mechanism for ABA-mediated stomatal closure are still not understood. Here, we report a novel negative regulator of guard cell ABA signaling, DOR, in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). The DOR gene encodes a putative F-box protein, a member of the S-locus F-box-like family related to AhSLF-S(2) and specifically interacting with ASK14 and CUL1. A null mutation in DOR resulted in a hypersensitive ABA response of stomatal closing and a substantial increase of drought tolerance; in contrast, the transgenic plants overexpressing DOR were more susceptible to the drought stress. DOR is strongly expressed in guard cells and suppressed by ABA treatment, suggesting a negative feedback loop of DOR in ABA responses. Double-mutant analyses of dor with ABA-insensitive mutant abi1-1 showed that abi1-1 is epistatic to dor, but no apparent change of phospholipase Dalpha1 was detected between the wild type and dor. Affymetrix GeneChip analysis showed that DOR likely regulates ABA biosynthesis under drought stress. Taken together, our results demonstrate that DOR acts independent of phospholipase Dalpha1 in an ABA signaling pathway to inhibit the ABA-induced stomatal closure under drought stress.     

Sequence and expression analysis of the Arabidopsis IQM family

Four major families have been found so far to possess the calmodulin binding IQ motif/s in plants: the IQD, the myosin, the CAMTA and the CNGC family. We have systematically identified and characterized a novel IQ motif-containing protein family, IQM, in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) using bioinformatics methods. IQM family contains six-member proteins (IQM1-6) which share sequence homology with a pea heavy metal-induced protein 6 and a ribosome-inactivating protein, trichosanthin, as well as IQ motif. IQM family can be divided into two groups, IQM3 and the other member proteins, based on sequence similarity and phylogenetic analysis of sequences. Though almost constitutive expression patterns were found in various plant organs of 6-week-old plants for IQM1 and 2, the other genes exhibited distinct organ-specific expression patterns. Light irradiation and treatment with heavy metals such as CdCl₂ or Pb(NO₃)₂ and high concentrations of mannitol or NaCl also changed expression of each IQM gene in a distinct manner in 7-day-old seedlings. However, treatment with various hormones, such as auxin, abscisic acid, gibberellin, methyl jasmonate and ethylene precursor, did not affect gene expression significantly. These results suggest that each IQM family gene plays a different role in plant development and responses to environmental cues.     

Pyrabactin, an ABA agonist, induced stomatal closure and changes in signalling components of guard cells in abaxial epidermis of Pisum sativum

Pyrabactin, a synthetic agonist of abscisic acid (ABA), inhibits seed germination and hypocotyl growth and stimulates gene expression in a very similar way to ABA, implying the possible modulation of stomatal function by pyrabactin as well. The effect of pyrabactin on stomatal closure and secondary messengers was therefore studied in guard cells of Pisum sativum abaxial epidermis. Pyrabactin caused marked stomatal closure in a pattern similar to ABA. In addition, pyrabactin elevated the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (NO), and cytoplasmic pH levels in guard cells, as indicated by the respective fluorophores. However, apyrabactin, an inactive analogue of ABA, did not affect either stomatal closure or the signalling components of guard cells. The effects of pyrabactin-induced changes were reversed by pharmalogical compounds that modulate ROS, NO or cytoplasmic pH levels, quite similar to ABA effects. Fusicoccin, a fungal toxin, could reverse the stomatal closure caused by pyrabactin, as well as that caused by ABA. Experiments on stomatal closure by varying concentrations of ABA, in the presence of fixed concentration of pyrabactin, and vice versa, revealed that the actions of ABA and pyrabactin were additive. Further kinetic analysis of data revealed that the apparent K(D) of ABA was increased almost 4-fold in the presence of ABA, suggesting that pyrabactin and ABA were competing with each other either at the same site or close to the active site. It is proposed that pyrabactin could be used to examine the ABA-related signal-transduction components in stomatal guard cells as well as in other plant tissues. It is also suggested that pyrabactin can be used as an antitranspirant or as a priming agent for improving the drought tolerance of crop plants.     

苜蓿体内H2S信号与Ca2+调节气孔运动的作用机制

为探究H₂S信号在苜蓿（Medicago sativa）体内调节气孔运动的作用,及在此过程中H₂S与Ca²⁺的关系,以蒺藜苜蓿（Medicago truncatula）的野生型和钙离子转运体突变体为试验材料,分别从转录水平、细胞水平和生理水平开展研究。采用qRT-PCR比较相关基因的表达量变化、荧光探针显示体内Ca²⁺含量、电极法测定H₂S含量、光学显微镜观察和测量气孔孔径等。结果表明：蒺藜苜蓿突变体NF3011和NF2734体内H₂S的含量与野生型相比极显著降低（P<0.01）;H₂S信号在一定程度上抑制钙离子转运体编码基因MTR_6g027580的表达;外源生理浓度H₂S熏蒸可诱导蒺藜苜蓿气孔关闭,与Ca²⁺通道阻断剂LaCl₃联合处理对野生型气孔运动未产生影响,而在突变体中的结果截然相反;利用荧光探针测定保卫细胞内的Ca²⁺含量,所得结果与气孔孔径的变化规律完全一致。综上所述,H₂S信号促进叶片保卫细胞内Ca²⁺的含量增加,最终表现为植物气孔孔径变小,在此过程中胞内Ca²⁺含量变化主要通过Ca²⁺转运体进行,少部分依赖Ca²⁺离子通道。该研究结果不仅在理论上丰富了H₂S信号的作用机制,更具应用于苜蓿生产实践并推广于其他作物的潜力。     

A role for phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate in abscisic acid-induced reactive oxygen species generation in guard cells

Guard cells generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) in response to abscisic acid (ABA), which leads to stomatal closing. The upstream steps of the ABA-induced ROS generation pathway remain largely unknown. In animal cells, ROS generation in neutrophils is activated by phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P). Stomatal guard cells contain PI3P and PI 3-kinase activity. In this study, we tested whether PI3P has a role in ROS generation in guard cells exposed to ABA. We found that PI 3-kinase inhibitors wortmannin or LY294002 inhibited ABA-induced ROS generation and stomatal closing. Endosome-binding domain (of human EEA1), which specifically binds to PI3P, also inhibited ABA-induced ROS generation and stomatal closing when overexpressed in guard cells. Hydrogen peroxide partially reversed the effects of wortmannin or LY294002 on ABA-induced stomatal closing. These results support a role for PI3P in ABA-induced ROS generation and stomatal closing movement.