mTORC1 Signaling Promotes Osteoblast Differentiation from Preosteoblasts

Preosteoblasts are precursor cells that are committed to the osteoblast lineage. Differentiation of these cells to mature osteoblasts is regulated by the extracellular factors and environmental cues. Recent studies have implicated mTOR signaling in the regulation of osteoblast differentiation. However, mTOR exists in two distinct protein complexes (mTORC1 and mTORC2), and the specific role of mTORC1 in regulating the progression of preosteoblasts to mature osteoblastis still unclear. In this study, we first deleted Raptor, a unique and essential component of mTORC1, in primary calvarial cells. Deletion of Raptor resulted in loss of mTORC1 but an increase in mTORC2 signaling without overtly affecting autophagy. Under the osteogenic culture condition, Raptor-deficient cells exhibited a decrease in matrix synthesis and mineralization. qPCR analyses revealed that deletion of Raptor reduced the expression of late-stage markers for osteoblast differentiation (Bglap, Ibsp, and Col1a), while slightly increasing early osteoblast markers (Runx2, Sp7, and Alpl). Consistent with the findings in vitro, genetic ablation of Raptor in osterix-expressing cells led to osteopenia in mice. Together, our findings have identified a specific role for mTORC1 in the transition from preosteoblasts to mature osteoblasts.     

Akt Inhibition Promotes ABCA1-Mediated Cholesterol Efflux to ApoA-I through Suppressing mTORC1

ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1) plays an essential role in mediating cholesterol efflux to apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I), a major housekeeping mechanism for cellular cholesterol homeostasis. After initial engagement with ABCA1, apoA-I directly interacts with the plasma membrane to acquire cholesterol. This apoA-I lipidation process is also known to require cellular signaling processes, presumably to support cholesterol trafficking to the plasma membrane. We report here that one of major signaling pathways in mammalian cells, Akt, is also involved. In several cell models that express ABCA1 including macrophages, pancreatic beta cells and hepatocytes, inhibition of Akt increases cholesterol efflux to apoA-I. Importantly, Akt inhibition has little effect on cells expressing non-functional mutant of ABCA1, implicating a specific role of Akt in ABCA1 function. Furthermore, we provide evidence that mTORC1, a major downstream target of Akt, is also a negative regulator of cholesterol efflux. In cells where mTORC1 is constitutively activated due to tuberous sclerosis complex 2 deletion, cholesterol efflux to apoA-I is no longer sensitive to Akt activity. This suggests that Akt suppresses cholesterol efflux through mTORC1 activation. Indeed, inhibition of mTORC1 by rapamycin or Torin-1 promotes cholesterol efflux. On the other hand, autophagy, one of the major pathways of cholesterol trafficking, is increased upon Akt inhibition. Furthermore, Akt inhibition disrupts lipid rafts, which is known to promote cholesterol efflux to apoA-I. We therefore conclude that Akt, through its downstream targets, mTORC1 and hence autophagy, negatively regulates cholesterol efflux to apoA-I.     

Regulation of mTOR Complex 1 (mTORC1) by Raptor Ser863 and Multisite Phosphorylation

The rapamycin-sensitive mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) promotes protein synthesis, cell growth, and cell proliferation in response to growth factors and nutritional cues. To elucidate the poorly defined mechanisms underlying mTORC1 regulation, we have studied the phosphorylation of raptor, an mTOR-interacting partner. We have identified six raptor phosphorylation sites that lie in two centrally localized clusters (cluster 1, Ser⁶⁹⁶/Thr⁷⁰⁶ and cluster 2, Ser⁸⁵⁵/Ser⁸⁵⁹/Ser⁸⁶³/Ser⁸⁷⁷) using tandem mass spectrometry and generated phosphospecific antibodies for each of these sites. Here we focus primarily although not exclusively on raptor Ser⁸⁶³ phosphorylation. We report that insulin promotes mTORC1-associated phosphorylation of raptor Ser⁸⁶³ via the canonical PI3K/TSC/Rheb pathway in a rapamycin-sensitive manner. mTORC1 activation by other stimuli (e.g. amino acids, epidermal growth factor/MAPK signaling, and cellular energy) also promote raptor Ser⁸⁶³ phosphorylation. Rheb overexpression increases phosphorylation on raptor Ser⁸⁶³ as well as on the five other identified sites (e.g. Ser⁸⁵⁹, Ser⁸⁵⁵, Ser⁸⁷⁷, Ser⁶⁹⁶, and Thr⁷⁰⁶). Strikingly, raptor Ser⁸⁶³ phosphorylation is absolutely required for raptor Ser⁸⁵⁹ and Ser⁸⁵⁵ phosphorylation. These data suggest that mTORC1 activation leads to raptor multisite phosphorylation and that raptor Ser⁸⁶³ phosphorylation functions as a master biochemical switch that modulates hierarchical raptor phosphorylation (e.g. on Ser⁸⁵⁹ and Ser⁸⁵⁵). Importantly, mTORC1 containing phosphorylation site-defective raptor exhibits reduced in vitro kinase activity toward the substrate 4EBP1, with a multisite raptor 6A mutant more strongly defective that single-site raptor S863A. Taken together, these data suggest that complex raptor phosphorylation functions as a biochemical rheostat that modulates mTORC1 signaling in accordance with environmental cues.     

Ursolic Acid Inhibits Leucine-Stimulated mTORC1 Signaling by Suppressing mTOR Localization to Lysosome

Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid widely found in medicinal herbs and fruits, has been reported to possess a wide range of beneficial properties including anti-hyperglycemia, anti-obesity, and anti-cancer. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying the action of UA remain largely unknown. Here we show that UA inhibits leucine-induced activation of the mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling pathway in C2C12 myotubes. The UA-mediated inhibition of mTORC1 is independent of Akt, tuberous sclerosis complex 1/2 (TSC1/2), and Ras homolog enriched in brain (Rheb), suggesting that UA negatively regulates mTORC1 signaling by targeting at a site downstream of these mTOR regulators. UA treatment had no effect on the interaction between mTOR and its activator Raptor or inhibitor Deptor, but suppressed the binding of RagB to Raptor and inhibited leucine-induced mTOR lysosomal localization. Taken together, our study identifies UA as a direct negative regulator of the mTORC1 signaling pathway and suggests a novel mechanism by which UA exerts its beneficial function.     

PPM1A Regulates Antiviral Signaling by Antagonizing TBK1-Mediated STING Phosphorylation and Aggregation

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING, also known as MITA and ERIS) is critical in protecting the host against DNA pathogen invasion. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the regulation of STING remains unclear. Here, we show that PPM1A negatively regulates antiviral signaling by targeting STING in its phosphatase activity-dependent manner, and in a line with this, PPM1A catalytically dephosphorylates STING and TBK1 in vitro. Importantly, we provide evidence that whereas TBK1 promotes STING aggregation in a phosphorylation-dependent manner, PPM1A antagonizes STING aggregation by dephosphorylating both STING and TBK1, emphasizing that phosphorylation is crucial for the efficient activation of STING. Our findings demonstrate a novel regulatory circuit in which STING and TBK1 reciprocally regulate each other to enable efficient antiviral signaling activation, and PPM1A dephosphorylates STING and TBK1, thereby balancing this antiviral signal transduction.     

Cholecystokinin-Mediated RhoGDI Phosphorylation via PKCα Promotes both RhoA and Rac1 Signaling

RhoA and Rac1 have been implicated in the mechanism of CCK-induced amylase secretion from pancreatic acini. In all cell types studied to date, inactive Rho GTPases are present in the cytosol bound to the guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor RhoGDI. Here, we identified the switch mechanism regulating RhoGDI1-Rho GTPase dissociation and RhoA translocation upon CCK stimulation in pancreatic acini. We found that both Gα13 and PKC, independently, regulate CCK-induced RhoA translocation and that the PKC isoform involved is PKCα. Both RhoGDI1 and RhoGDI3, but not RhoGDI2, are expressed in pancreatic acini. Cytosolic RhoA and Rac1 are associated with RhoGDI1, and CCK-stimulated PKCα activation releases the complex. Overexpression of RhoGDI1, by binding RhoA, inhibits its activation, and thereby, CCK-induced apical amylase secretion. RhoA translocation is also inhibited by RhoGDI1. Inactive Rac1 influences CCK-induced RhoA activation by preventing RhoGDI1 from binding RhoA. By mutational analysis we found that CCK-induced PKCα phosphorylation on RhoGDI1 at Ser96 releases RhoA and Rac1 from RhoGDI1 to facilitate Rho GTPases signaling.     

丙型肝炎病毒E1蛋白活化MAPK／ERK信号通路促进肝癌细胞增殖

目的研究丙型肝炎病毒（hepatitisCvirus,HCV）编码蛋白E1的生物学功能。方法分别构建编码HCV重要蛋白E1、E2、NS3、NS5a、NS5b的腺病毒载体Ad—E1、Ad—E2、Ad—NS3、Ad—NS5a、Ad—NS5b;将重组并包装的腺病毒分别感染SMMC-7721细胞,测定感染滴度,通过RT—PCR方法在转录水平鉴定HCVE1、E2、NS3、NS5a、NSSb的表达,用Western印迹在蛋白水平鉴定E1蛋白的表达。腺病毒感染SMMC-7721细胞后,通过细胞增殖实验筛选生物学功能最明显的蛋白。将筛选到的Ad—E1感染SMMC-7721细胞,用MTS、结晶紫、细胞周期实验观察体外过表达E1蛋白对感染细胞增殖的影响;Western印迹检测p-ERK、ERK的表达;RT—PCR检测c—Myc、cyclinD1、c—Jun、c．Fos基因的表达。结果成功扩增了能够编码HCV重要蛋白E1、E2、NS3、NS5a、NS5b的高滴度腺病毒Ad—E1、Ad—E2、Ad—NS3、Ad—NS5a、Ad—NS5b,并且通过RT—PCR方法在转录水平鉴定了目的基因的表达,Western印迹方法在蛋白水平鉴定了E1蚩白的表达。通过细胞计数、MTS、结晶紫实验证实Ad—E1感染组细胞较对照组增殖速度加快,细胞周期显示Ad-E1感染组细胞34．38％处于S期,明显高于Ad—GFP（27．32％）（P〈0．05）对照组;Ad-E1感染绢p-ERK蛋白表达量增高,同时与细胞增殖相关的MAPK／ERK下游基因转录水平上凋。结论体外过表达HCVE1蛋白可以明显促进SMMC-7721细胞的增殖,其促增殖作用可能与MAPK／ERK信号通路的活化相关。     

Tyr-94 Phosphorylation Inhibits Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Phosphatase 1 and Promotes Tumor Growth

Many cancer cells rely more on aerobic glycolysis (the Warburg effect) than mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and catabolize glucose at a high rate. Such a metabolic switch is suggested to be due in part to functional attenuation of mitochondria in cancer cells. However, how oncogenic signals attenuate mitochondrial function and promote the switch to glycolysis remains unclear. We previously reported that tyrosine phosphorylation activates and inhibits mitochondrial pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) and phosphatase (PDP), respectively, leading to enhanced inhibitory serine phosphorylation of pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) and consequently inhibition of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) in cancer cells. In particular, Tyr-381 phosphorylation of PDP1 dissociates deacetylase SIRT3 and recruits acetyltransferase ACAT1 to PDC, resulting in increased inhibitory lysine acetylation of PDHA1 and PDP1. Here we report that phosphorylation at another tyrosine residue, Tyr-94, inhibits PDP1 by reducing the binding ability of PDP1 to lipoic acid, which is covalently attached to the L2 domain of dihydrolipoyl acetyltransferase (E2) to recruit PDP1 to PDC. We found that multiple oncogenic tyrosine kinases directly phosphorylated PDP1 at Tyr-94, and Tyr-94 phosphorylation of PDP1 was common in diverse human cancer cells and primary leukemia cells from patients. Moreover, expression of a phosphorylation-deficient PDP1 Y94F mutant in cancer cells resulted in increased oxidative phosphorylation, decreased cell proliferation under hypoxia, and reduced tumor growth in mice. Together, our findings suggest that phosphorylation at different tyrosine residues inhibits PDP1 through independent mechanisms, which act in concert to regulate PDC activity and promote the Warburg effect.     

Active-Site Inhibitors of mTOR Target Rapamycin-Resistant Outputs of mTORC1 and mTORC2

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) regulates cell growth and survival by integrating nutrient and hormonal signals. These signaling functions are distributed between at least two distinct mTOR protein complexes: mTORC1 and mTORC2. mTORC1 is sensitive to the selective inhibitor rapamycin and activated by growth factor stimulation via the canonical phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)→Akt→mTOR pathway. Activated mTORC1 kinase up-regulates protein synthesis by phosphorylating key regulators of mRNA translation. By contrast, mTORC2 is resistant to rapamycin. Genetic studies have suggested that mTORC2 may phosphorylate Akt at S473, one of two phosphorylation sites required for Akt activation; this has been controversial, in part because RNA interference and gene knockouts produce distinct Akt phospho-isoforms. The central role of mTOR in controlling key cellular growth and survival pathways has sparked interest in discovering mTOR inhibitors that bind to the ATP site and therefore target both mTORC2 and mTORC1. We investigated mTOR signaling in cells and animals with two novel and specific mTOR kinase domain inhibitors (TORKinibs). Unlike rapamycin, these TORKinibs (PP242 and PP30) inhibit mTORC2, and we use them to show that pharmacological inhibition of mTOR blocks the phosphorylation of Akt at S473 and prevents its full activation. Furthermore, we show that TORKinibs inhibit proliferation of primary cells more completely than rapamycin. Surprisingly, we find that mTORC2 is not the basis for this enhanced activity, and we show that the TORKinib PP242 is a more effective mTORC1 inhibitor than rapamycin. Importantly, at the molecular level, PP242 inhibits cap-dependent translation under conditions in which rapamycin has no effect. Our findings identify new functional features of mTORC1 that are resistant to rapamycin but are effectively targeted by TORKinibs. These potent new pharmacological agents complement rapamycin in the study of mTOR and its role in normal physiology and human disease.     

Xer1-Mediated Site-Specific DNA Inversions and Excisions in Mycoplasma agalactiae

Surface antigen variation in Mycoplasma agalactiae, the etiologic agent of contagious agalactia in sheep and goats, is governed by site-specific recombination within the vpma multigene locus encoding the Vpma family of variable surface lipoproteins. This high-frequency Vpma phase switching was previously shown to be mediated by a Xer1 recombinase encoded adjacent to the vpma locus. In this study, it was demonstrated in Escherichia coli that the Xer1 recombinase is responsible for catalyzing vpma gene inversions between recombination sites (RS) located in the 5′-untranslated region (UTR) in all six vpma genes, causing cleavage and strand exchange within a 21-bp conserved region that serves as a recognition sequence. It was further shown that the outcome of the site-specific recombination event depends on the orientation of the two vpma RS, as direct or inverted repeats. While recombination between inverted vpma RS led to inversions, recombination between direct repeat vpma RS led to excisions. Using a newly developed excision assay based on the lacZ reporter system, we were able to successfully demonstrate under native conditions that such Xer1-mediated excisions can indeed also occur in the M. agalactiae type strain PG2, whereas they were not observed in the control xer1-disrupted VpmaY phase-locked mutant (PLMY), which lacks Xer1 recombinase. Unless there are specific regulatory mechanisms preventing such excisions, this might be the cost that the pathogen has to render at the population level for maintaining this high-frequency phase variation machinery.Members of the bacterial class Mollicutes, which are generally referred to as mycoplasmas, are considered among the simplest self-replicating prokaryotes carrying minimal genomes. Even having lost many biosynthetic pathways during a reductive evolution, mycoplasmas represent important pathogens of humans, animals, and plants, as they are equipped with sophisticated molecular mechanisms allowing them to spontaneously change their cell surface repertoire to persist in immunocompetent hosts (25).The important ruminant pathogen Mycoplasma agalactiae causes contagious agalactia in sheep and goats and exhibits antigenic diversity by site-specific DNA rearrangements within a pathogenicity island-like gene locus (9, 10, 26). The so-called vpma locus constitutes a family of six distinct but related genes that encode major immunodominant membrane lipoproteins, the Vpmas (variable proteins of Mycoplasma agalactiae) (10, 11). These surface-associated proteins vary in expression at an unusually high frequency, and only one vpma gene at a time is transcribed from a single promoter present in that locus, while all other genes are silent (9, 10). An open reading frame (ORF) with homology to the λ-integrase family of site-specific recombinases was found in the vicinity of the vpma locus and was predicted to mediate DNA inversions responsible for switching the promoter from an active vpma gene to a silent one, resulting in alteration of vpma expression (9, 10). This recombinase, designated Xer1, was indeed recently demonstrated to be responsible for phase variation of Vpma proteins (4). Targeted knockouts of the xer1 gene by homologous recombination prevented Vpma switching and produced Vpma phase-locked mutants (PLMs) steadily expressing a single vpma gene without any variation. Complementation of the wild-type xer1 gene in these PLMs restored Vpma phase variation (4). Similar systems generating surface diversity by DNA inversions involving site-specific recombination have been identified in other mycoplasma species (3, 18, 26).Site-specific recombination systems are widespread among bacteria, and the biological functions of these systems depend strongly on the participating recombination sites (RS) (16, 24, 27). Excision events between direct repeat RS usually resolve chromosome or plasmid dimers, which can arise through homologous recombination, ensuring proper segregation of newly replicated genetic material to daughter cells (1). Also, site-specific recombination mediates integration and excision of phage genomes into and out of the host chromosome (13). In contrast, site-specific inversion involving inverted repeat RS generates genetic diversity and often controls the expression of genes that are important for pathogenesis (21).The Xer1 recombinase of M. agalactiae belongs to the λ-integrase family of site-specific recombinases (10). Members of this family share four strongly conserved amino acid residues (R-H-R-Y) within the C-terminal half of the protein. This tetrad includes the active tyrosine residue that is directly involved in the recombination reaction (8). Recombination occurs by formation and resolution of a Holliday junction intermediate involving a covalent linkage between the recombinase and the DNA through the tyrosine residue. Since energy cofactors such as ATP are not required, such recombination events can occur in the absence of replication (16, 24).Sequence alignment of vpma genes identified a conserved 21-bp region within the 5′-untranslated region (UTR) in all vpma genes that was predicted to be involved in Xer1-mediated inversions (10). The present study clearly demonstrates that the Xer1 recombinase recognizes RS located within the 5′ UTR of vpma genes, causing cleavage and strand exchange within a conserved region of 21 bp. By placing two vpma-derived RS on a plasmid along with the xer1 gene, recombination events were demonstrated in Escherichia coli upon Xer1 induction via PCR and restriction analysis. Although the conserved 21-bp region was sufficient for inversions, additional nucleotides flanking it at the 5′ end were found to have a positive influence on the rate of recombination. An interesting outcome of these studies was that Xer1 also mediated excisions between direct repeat vpma RS in E. coli. This raised the intriguing possibility that such Xer1-mediated excisions also occur in the native M. agalactiae system. For further analysis of such excision events in the native system, we tested the feasibility of using the lacZ reporter tool in M. agalactiae, as lacZ is known to be expressed successfully in few other mycoplasma species, to study gene expression by use of promoter probe vectors (15, 19, 22, 23). We developed an excision assay based on blue-white phenotype selection to study Xer1-mediated excisions in M. agalactiae, thus displaying a novel application of the lacZ reporter gene in mycoplasmas. Successful implementation of this reporter system demonstrated Xer1-mediated excisions in the M. agalactiae type strain PG2, based on blue-white selection and PCR analysis. As expected, such excisions were not observed in the control xer1-disrupted VpmaY phase-locked mutant (PLMY), which lacks Xer1. Excisions in the native system imply that genetic material is susceptible to loss, which might be the cost for maintaining the machinery of high-frequency gene shuffling for a greater population advantage, unless there are specific regulatory mechanisms preventing such excisions.     

Sigma1 Receptor Inhibits TRPC1-Mediated Ca2+ Entry That Promotes Dopaminergic Cell Death

Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology - Regulation of Ca2+ homeostasis is essential for neuronal function and its survival. Recent data suggest that TRPC1 function as the endogenous store-mediated...