Differential expression within the glutamine synthetase gene family of the model legume Medicago truncatula.

The glutamine synthetase (GS) gene family of Medicago truncatula Gaertn. contains three genes related to cytosolic GS (MtGSa, MtGSb, and MtGSc), although one of these (MtGSc) appears not to be expressed. Sequence analysis suggests that the genes are more highly conserved interspecifically rather than intraspecifically: MtGSa and MtGSb are more similar to their homologs in Medicago sativa and Pisum sativum than to each other. Studies in which gene-specific probes are used show that both MtGSa and MtGSb are induced during symbiotic root nodule development, although not coordinately. MtGSa is the most highly expressed GS gene in nodules but is also expressed to lower extents in a variety of other organs. MtGSb shows higher levels of expression in roots and the photosynthetic cotyledons of seedlings than in nodules or other organs. In roots, both genes are expressed in the absence of an exogenous nitrogen source. However the addition of nitrate leads to a short-term, 2- to 3-fold increase in the abundance of both mRNAs, and the addition of ammonium leads to a 2-fold increase in MtGSb mRNA. The nitrogen supply, therefore, influences the expression of the two genes in roots, but it is clearly not the major effector of their expression. In the discussion section, the expression of the GS gene family of the model legume M. truncatula is compared to those of other leguminous plants.     

Heteromeric assembly of the cytosolic glutamine synthetase polypeptides of Medicago truncatula: complementation of a glnA Escherichia coli mutant with a plant domain-swapped enzyme

We have cloned and sequenced the cDNAs corresponding to the two cytosolic glutamine synthetase (GS) polypeptides (a and b) of Medicago truncatula. Using these two cDNAs we have prepared a construct encoding the N-terminal domain of b and the C-terminal domain of a in order to produce a domain-swapped polypeptide which should assemble to give an enzyme containing chimeric active sites. Both the native and the domain-swapped enzymes were expressed in Escherichia coli where they were catalytically and physiologically active as they were able to rescue a glnA deletion mutant. The expressed polypeptides were of the correct size and the isoenzymes behaved similarly to their native homologues on ion-exchange chromatography. We have found slight differences in the kinetic properties of the purified enzymes and in the modulation of their activities by several putative cellular effectors. In vitro dissociation of the purified a and b homo-octamers, followed by reassociation, showed that the subunits are able to self-assemble, perhaps randomly, to form heteromeric isoenzymes. Moreover, heteromeric isoenzymes occur in the plant as revealed by studies on the GS isoenzymes of nodules, roots, stems and stipules.     

Kinetic properties and ammonium-dependent regulation of cytosolic isoenzymes of glutamine synthetase in Arabidopsis

Glutamine synthetase (GS; EC 6.3.1.2) is a key enzyme of nitrogen assimilation, catalyzing the synthesis of glutamine from ammonium and glutamate. In Arabidopsis, cytosolic GS (GS1) was accumulated in roots when plants were excessively supplied with ammonium; however, the GS activity was controlled at a constant level. The discrepancy between the protein content and enzyme activity of GS1 was attributable to the kinetic properties and expression of four distinct isoenzymes encoded by GLN1;1, GLN1;2, GLN1;3 and GLN1;4, genes that function complementary to each other in Arabidopsis roots. GLN1;2 was the only isoenzyme significantly up-regulated by ammonium, which correlated with the rapid increase in total GS1 protein. GLN1;2 was localized in the vasculature and exhibited low affinities to ammonium (Km = 2450 +/- 150 microm) and glutamate (Km = 3.8 +/- 0.2 mm). The expression of the counterpart vascular tissue-localizing low affinity isoenzyme, GLN1;3, was not stimulated by ammonium; however, the enzyme activity of GLN1;3 was significantly inhibited by a high concentration of glutamate. By contrast, the high affinity isoenzyme, GLN1;1 (Km for ammonium < 10 microm; Km for glutamate = 1.1 +/- 0.4 mm) was abundantly accumulated in the surface layers of roots during nitrogen limitation and was down-regulated by ammonium excess. GLN1;4 was another high affinity-type GS1 expressed in nitrogen-starved plants but was 10-fold less abundant than GLN1;1. These results suggested that dynamic regulations of high and low affinity GS1 isoenzymes at the levels of mRNA and enzyme activities are dependent on nitrogen availabilities and may contribute to the homeostatic control of glutamine synthesis in Arabidopsis roots.     

The Medicago truncatula DMI1 protein modulates cytosolic calcium signaling

In addition to establishing symbiotic relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, legumes also enter into a nitrogen-fixing symbiosis with rhizobial bacteria that results in the formation of root nodules. Several genes involved in the development of both arbuscular mycorrhiza and legume nodulation have been cloned in model legumes. Among them, Medicago truncatula DMI1 (DOESN'T MAKE INFECTIONS1) is required for the generation of nucleus-associated calcium spikes in response to the rhizobial signaling molecule Nod factor. DMI1 encodes a membrane protein with striking similarities to the Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum potassium channel (MthK). The cytosolic C terminus of DMI1 contains a RCK (regulator of the conductance of K(+)) domain that in MthK acts as a calcium-regulated gating ring controlling the activity of the channel. Here we show that a dmi1 mutant lacking the entire C terminus acts as a dominant-negative allele interfering with the formation of nitrogen-fixing nodules and abolishing the induction of calcium spikes by the G-protein agonist Mastoparan. Using both the full-length DMI1 and this dominant-negative mutant protein we show that DMI1 increases the sensitivity of a sodium- and lithium-hypersensitive yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) mutant toward those ions and that the C-terminal domain plays a central role in regulating this response. We also show that DMI1 greatly reduces the release of calcium from internal stores in yeast, while the dominant-negative allele appears to have the opposite effect. This work suggests that DMI1 is not directly responsible for Nod factor-induced calcium changes, but does have the capacity to regulate calcium channels in both yeast and plants.     

Phosphorylation and subsequent interaction with 14-3-3 proteins regulate plastid glutamine synthetase in Medicago truncatula

In this report we demonstrate that plastid glutamine synthetase of Medicago truncatula (MtGS2) is regulated by phosphorylation and 14-3-3 interaction. To investigate regulatory aspects of GS2 phosphorylation, we have produced non-phosphorylated GS2 proteins by expressing the plant cDNA in E. coli and performed in vitro phosphorylation assays. The recombinant isoenzyme was phosphorylated by calcium dependent kinase(s) present in leaves, roots and nodules. Using an (His)₆-tagged 14-3-3 protein column affinity purification method, we demonstrate that phosphorylated GS2 interacts with 14-3-3 proteins and that this interaction leads to selective proteolysis of the plastid located isoform, resulting in inactivation of the isoenzyme. By site directed mutagenesis we were able to identify a GS2 phosphorylation site (Ser97) crucial for the interaction with 14-3-3s. Phosphorylation of this target residue can be functionally mimicked by replacing Ser97 by Asp, indicating that the introduction of a negative charge contributes to the interaction with 14-3-3 proteins and subsequent specific proteolysis. Furthermore, we document that plant extracts contain protease activity that cleaves the GS2 protein only when it is bound to 14-3-3 proteins following either phosphorylation or mimicking of phosphorylation by Ser97Asp.     

A Medicago truncatula homoglutathione synthetase is derived from glutathione synthetase by gene duplication

Glutathione (GSH) and homo-GSH (hGSH) are the major low-molecular weight thiols synthesized in Medicago truncatula. Two M. truncatula cDNAs (gshs1 and gshs2) corresponding to a putative GSH synthetase (GSHS) and a putative hGSH synthetase (hGSHS) were characterized. Heterologous expression of gshs1 and gshs2 cDNAs in an Escherichia coli strain deficient in GSHS activity showed that GSHS1 and GSHS2 are a GSHS and an hGSHS, respectively. Leucine-534 and proline-535 present in hGSHS were substituted by alanines that are conserved in plant GSHS. These substitutions resulted in a strongly stimulated GSH accumulation in the transformed E. coli strain showing that these residues play a crucial role in the differential recognition of beta-alanine and glycine by hGSHS. Phylogenetic analysis of GSHS2 and GSHS1 with other eukaryotic GSHS sequences indicated that gshs2 and gshs1 are the result of a gene duplication that occurred after the divergence between Fabales, Solanales, and Brassicales. Analysis of the structure of gshs1 and gshs2 genes shows they are both present in a cluster and in the same orientation in the M. truncatula genome, suggesting that the duplication of gshs1 and gshs2 occurred via a tandem duplication.     

Response of transgenic poplar overexpressing cytosolic glutamine synthetase to phosphinothricin

Glutamine synthetase (GS) is the main enzyme involved in ammonia assimilation in plants and is the target of phosphinothricin (PPT), an herbicide commonly used for weed control in agriculture. As a result of the inhibition of GS, PPT also blocks photorespiration, resulting in the depletion of leaf amino acid pools leading to the plant death. Hybrid transgenic poplar (Populus tremula x P. alba INRA clone 7171-B4) overexpressing cytosolic GS is characterized by enhanced vegetative growth [Gallardo, F., Fu, J., Cantón, F.R., García-Gutiérrez, A., Cánovas, F.M., Kirby, E.G., 1999. Expression of a conifer glutamine synthetase gene in transgenic poplar. Planta 210, 19-26; Fu, J., Sampalo, R., Gallardo, F., Cánovas, F.M., Kirby, E.G., 2003. Assembly of a cytosolic pine glutamine synthetase holoenzyme in leaves of transgenic poplar leads to enhanced vegetative growth in young plants. Plant Cell Environ. 26, 411-418; Jing, Z.P., Gallardo, F., Pascual, M.B., Sampalo, R., Romero, J., Torres de Navarra, A., Cánovas, F.M., 2004. Improved growth in a field trial of transgenic hybrid poplar overexpressing glutamine synthetase. New Phytol. 164, 137-145], increased photosynthetic and photorespiratory capacities [El-Khatib, R.T., Hamerlynck, E.P., Gallardo, F., Kirby, E.G., 2004. Transgenic poplar characterized by ectopic expression of a pine cytosolic glutamine synthetase gene exhibits enhanced tolerance to water stress. Tree Physiol. 24, 729-736], enhanced tolerance to water stress (El-Khatib et al., 2004), and enhanced nitrogen use efficiency [Man, H.-M., Boriel, R., El-Khatib, R.T., Kirby, E.G., 2005. Characterization of transgenic poplar with ectopic expression of pine cytosolic glutamine synthetase under conditions of varying nitrogen availability. New Phytol. 167, 31-39]. In vitro plantlets of GS transgenic poplar exhibited enhanced resistance to PPT when compared with non-transgenic controls. After 30 days exposure to PPT at an equivalent dose of 275 g ha(-1), growth of GS transgenic poplar plantlets was 5-fold greater than controls. The response of young leaves to PPT treatment depends on physiological state as indicated by GS and Rubisco (LSU) levels. Young leaves from control plants, typically in a low differentiation state, respond to the herbicide showing up-regulation of GS and LSU. In contrast, young leaves from transgenic lines, with higher initial GS and LSU levels compared to control, display up-regulation of NADP(+)-isocitrate dehydrogenase. Differences between control and GS transgenics in their response to PPT are discussed in relation to their differences in photosynthetic and photorespiratory capacities (El-Khatib et al., 2004).     

Vascular bundle-specific localization of cytosolic glutamine synthetase in rice leaves

Tissue localizations of cytosolic glutamine synthetase (GS1; EC 6.3.1.2), chloroplastic GS (GS2), and ferredoxin-dependent glutamate synthase (Fd-GOGAT; EC 1.4.7.1) in rice (Oryza sativa L.) leaf blades were investigated using a tissue-print immunoblot method with specific antibodies. The cross-sections of mature and senescent leaf blades from middle and basal regions were used for tissue printing. The anti-GS1 antibody, raised against a synthetic 17-residue peptide corresponding to the deduced N-terminal amino acid sequence of rice GS1, cross-reacted specifically with native GS1 protein, but not with GS2 after transfer onto a nitrocellulose membrane. Tissue-print immunoblots showed that the GS1 protein was located in large and small vascular bundles in all regions of the leaf blade prepared from either stage of maturity. On the other hand, GS2 and Fd-GOGAT proteins were mainly located in mesophyll cells. The intensity of the developed color on the membrane for GS1 was similar between the two leaf ages, whereas that for GS2 and Fd-GOGAT decreased during senescence. The tissue-specific localization of GS1 suggests that this GS isoform is important in the synthesis of glutamine, which is a major form of nitrogen exported from the senescing leaf in rice plants.     

Differential regulation of a family of apyrase genes from Medicago truncatula

Four putative apyrase genes were identified from the model legume Medicago truncatula. Two of the genes identified from M. truncatula (Mtapy1 and Mtapy4) are expressed in roots and are inducible within 3 h after inoculation with Sinorhizobium meliloti. The level of mRNA expression of the other two putative apyrases, Mtapy2 and Mtapy3, was unaffected by rhizobial inoculation. Screening of a bacterial artificial chromosome library of M. truncatula genomic DNA showed that Mtapy1, Mtapy3, and Mtapy4 are present on a single bacterial artificial chromosome clone. This apyrase cluster was mapped to linkage group seven. A syntenic region on soybean linkage group J was found to contain at least two apyrase genes. Screening of nodulation deficient mutants of M. truncatula revealed that two such mutants do not express apyrases to any detectable level. The data suggest a role for apyrases early in the nodulation response before the involvement of root cortical cell division leading to the nodule structure.     

DNA transfer by highly asymmetric somatic hybridisation in Medicago truncatula (+) Medicago rugosaand Medicago truncatula(+) Medicago scutellata

A regenerable line of Medicago truncatula (Jemalong 2HA) as a recipient species, was fused with the sexually incompatible species Medicago scutellata or Medicago rugosa. The treatments described maintain the chromosome number of the recipient but enable the transfer of small amounts of DNA of the donor species, probably by intergenomic recombination. Without a chromosome number-change fusion products can readily regenerate to produce fertile plants; and potentially a library with a diverse array of new genetic material. The selection of fused cells is based on treatment of the recipient cells with iodoacetamide (IOA), a non-regenerable donor, γ-irradiation of the donor, and regeneration on a medium favouring the recipient. DNA transfer was demonstrated by amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), Southern hybridisation and changed morphology. Received: 21 December 2000 / Accepted: 5 April 2001     

The regulation of glutamine transport and glutamine synthetase in Salmonella typhimurium.

Transport of glutamine by the high-affinity transport system is regulated by the nitrogen status of the medium. With high concentrations of ammonia, transport is repressed; whereas with Casamino acids, transport is elevated, showing behaviour similar to glutamine synthetase. A glutamine auxotroph, lacking glutamine synthetase activity, had elevated transport activity even in the presence of high concentrations of ammonia (and glutamine). This suggests that glutamine synthetase is involved in the regulation of the transport system. A mutant with low glutamate synthase activity had low glutamine transport and glutamine synthetase activities, which could not be derepressed. A mutant in the high-affinity glutamine transport system showed normal regulation of glutamate synthase and glutamine synthetase. Possible mechanisms for this regulation are discussed.