The tissue-specific expression and developmental regulation of two nuclear genes encoding rat mitochondrial proteins. Medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase and mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase

To study the regulation of nuclear genes which encode mitochondrial enzymes involved in oxidative metabolism, absolute levels of mRNA encoding rat medium chain acyl-CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD) and rat mitochondrial malate dehydrogenase (mMDH) were determined in developing and adult male rat tissues. MCAD mRNA is expressed in a variety of adult male tissues with highest steady state levels in heart, adrenal, and skeletal muscle and lowest levels in brain, lung, and testes. In comparison, steady state levels of mMDH mRNA in adult male rat tissues were similar to those of MCAD mRNA in heart, small intestine, adrenal, and skeletal muscle but markedly different in brain, stomach, and testes. Thus, the steady-state levels of MCAD and mMDH mRNA are highest in adult tissues with high energy requirements. Dot blot analysis of RNA prepared from late fetal, suckling, and weaning rat heart, liver, and brain demonstrated the presence of MCAD and mMDH mRNA during the fetal period in all three tissues. Both MCAD and mMDH mRNA levels increased 2-2.5-fold at birth followed by a decline during the first postnatal week in heart and liver. The patterns of accumulation of these mRNAs in heart and liver during the weaning and early adult periods were also similar, although the absolute levels were significantly different. Brain MCAD mRNA levels were consistently low (less than 0.1 pg/micrograms total cellular RNA) throughout the developmental stages. However, brain mMDH mRNA levels exhibited a marked increase during the weaning period, reaching a peak concentration which is higher than the level of mMDH mRNA in heart and liver at any point during development. These results indicate that the level of expression of the nuclear genes encoding MCAD and mMDH is tissue-specific and developmentally regulated. The patterns of MCAD and mMDH mRNA accumulation parallel the changes in energy metabolism which occur during development and among adult tissues.     

Separate nuclear genes encode sarcomere-specific and ubiquitous human mitochondrial creatine kinase isoenzymes

Creatine kinase (EC 2.7.3.2) isoenzymes play a central role in energy transduction. Nuclear genes encode creatine kinase subunits from muscle, brain, and mitochondria (MtCK). We have recently isolated a cDNA clone encoding MtCK from a human placental library which is expressed in many human tissues (Haas, R. C., Korenfeld, C., Zhang, Z., Perryman, B., Roman, D., and Strauss, A. W. (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 2890-2897). With nontranslated and coding region probes, we demonstrated by RNA blot analysis that the MtCK mRNA in sarcomeric muscle is distinct from this placenta-derived, ubiquitous MtCK cDNA. To compare these different mRNAs, a MtCK cDNA clone was isolated from a human heart library and characterized by complete nucleotide sequence analysis. The chemically determined NH2-terminal 26 residues of purified human heart MtCK protein are identical to those predicted from this sarcomeric MtCK cDNA. The human sarcomeric and ubiquitous cDNAs share 73% nucleotide and 80% predicted amino acid sequence identities, but have less than 66% identity with the cytosolic creatine kinases. The sarcomeric MtCK cDNA encodes a 419-amino acid protein which contains a 39-residue transit peptide essential for mitochondrial import. Primer extension analysis predicts a 348-base pair 5'-nontranslated region. RNA blot analysis demonstrates that heart-derived MtCK is sarcomere-specific, but the ubiquitous MtCK mRNA is expressed in most tissues. Thus, separate nuclear genes encode two closely related, tissue-specific isoenzymes of MtCK. Our finding that multiple genes encode different mitochondrial protein isoenzymes is rare.     

Divergent enzyme kinetics and structural properties of the two human mitochondrial creatine kinase isoenzymes

The mitochondrial isoenzymes of creatine kinase (MtCK), ubiquitous uMtCK and sarcomeric sMtCK, are key enzymes of oxidative cellular energy metabolism and play an important role in human health and disease. Very little is known about uMtCK in general, or about sMtCK of human origin. Here we have heterologously expressed and purified both human MtCK isoenzymes to perform a biochemical, kinetic and structural characterization. Both isoenzymes occurred as octamers, which can dissociate into dimers. Distinct Stokes' radii of uMtCK and sMtCK in solution were indicative for conformational differences between these equally sized proteins. Both human MtCKs formed 2D-crystals on cardiolipin layers, which revealed further subtle differences in octamer structure and stability. Octameric human sMtCK displayed p4 symmetry with lattice parameters of 145 A, indicating a 'flattening' of the octamer on the phospholipid layer. pH optima and enzyme kinetic constants of the two human isoenzymes were significantly different. A pronounced substrate binding synergism (Kd > Km) was observed for all substrates, but was most pronounced in the forward reaction (PCr production) of uMtCK and led to a significantly lower Km for creatine (1.01 mM) and ATP (0.11 mM) as compared to sMtCK (creatine, 7.31 mM; ATP, 0.68 mM).     

Isolation and characterization of the gene and cDNA encoding human mitochondrial creatine kinase

Creatine kinase (CK; EC 2.7.3.2) isoenzymes play prominent roles in energy metabolism. Nuclear genes encode three known CK subunits: cytoplasmic muscle (MCK), cytoplasmic brain (BCK), and mitochondrial (MtCK). We have isolated the gene and cDNA encoding human placental MtCK. By using a dog heart MCK cDNA-derived probe, the 7.0-kb EcoRI fragment from one cross-hybridizing genomic clone was isolated and its complete nucleotide sequence determined. A region of this clone encoded predicted amino acid sequence identical to residues 15-26 of the human heart MtCK NH2-terminal protein sequence. The human placental MtCK cDNA was isolated by hybridization to a genomic fragment encoding this region. The human placental MtCK gene contains 9 exons encoding 416 amino acids, including a 38-amino acid transit peptide, presumably essential for mitochondrial import. Residues 1-14 of human placental MtCK cDNA-derived NH2-terminal sequence differ from the human heart MtCK protein sequence, suggesting that tissue-specific MtCK mRNAs are derived from multiple MtCK genes. RNA blot analysis demonstrated abundant MtCK mRNA in adult human ventricle and skeletal muscle, low amounts in placenta and small intestine, and a dramatic increase during in vitro differentiation induced by serum-deprivation in the non-fusing mouse smooth muscle cell line, BC3H1. These findings demonstrate coordinate regulation of MtCK and cytosolic CK gene expression and support the phosphocreatine shuttle hypothesis.     

Separation of mitochondrial creatine kinase (MiMi-CK) from cytosolic creatine kinase isoenzymes by Cibachrome-Blue affinity chromatography

The mitochondrial isoenzyme of creatine kinase (MiMi-CK) was separated by affinity chromatography on Cibachrome-Blue-Sepharose (Sepharose-Blue, Pharmacia). While the soluble CK isoforms (BB-CK and MM-CK) were specifically eluted by raising the pH of the column buffer from pH 6.0 to pH 8.0, MiMi-CK remained bound under these conditions but was specifically eluted by subsequent addition of ADP to the pH 8.0 buffer. This one-step method allows a fast and efficient separation of MiMi-CK from MM-and BB-CK isoenzymes and at the same time an enrichment of MiMi-CK by about 50-fold. Since MiMi-CK can be assayed separately after isolation by affinity chromatography on Sepharose-Blue, this method may be of clinical importance.     

Expression of the mitochondrial creatine kinase genes

Mitochondrial Creatine Kinase (MtCK) is responsible for the transfer of high energy phosphate from mitochondria to the cytosolic carrier, creatine, and exists in mammals as two isoenzymes encoded by separate genes. In rats and humans, sarcomere-specific MtCK (sMtCK) is expressed only in skeletal and heart muscle, and has 87% nucleotide identity across the 1257 bp coding region. The ubiquitous isoenzyme of MtCK (uMtCK) is expressed in many tissues with highest levels in brain, gut, and kidney, and has 92% nucleotide identity between the 1254 bp coding regions of rat and human. Both genes are highly regulated developmentally in a tissue-specific manner. There is virtually no expression of sMtCK mRNA prior to birth. Unlike cytosolic muscle CK (MCK) and brain CK (BCK), there is no developmental isoenzyme switch between the MtCKs. Cell culture models representing the tissue-specific expression of either sMtCK or uMtCK are available, but there are no adequate developmental models to examine their regulation. Several animal models are available to examine the coordinate regulation of the CK gene family and include 1) Cardiac Stress by coarctation (sMtCK, BCK, and MCK), 2) Uterus and placenta during pregnancy (uMtCK and BCK), and 3) Diabetes and mitochondrial myopathy (sMtCK, BCK, and MCK). We report the details of these findings, and discuss the coordinate regulation of the genes necessary for high-energy transduction.     

Native mitochondrial creatine kinase forms octameric structures. I. Isolation of two interconvertible mitochondrial creatine kinase forms, dimeric and octameric mitochondrial creatine kinase: characterization, localization, and structure-function relationships

The mitochondrial isoform of creatine kinase (Mi-CK, EC 2.7.3.2) purified to homogeneity from chicken cardiac muscle by the mild and efficient technique described in this article was greater than or equal to 99.5% pure and consisted of greater than or equal to 95% of a distinct, octameric Mi-CK protein species, with a Mr of 364,000 +/- 30,000 and an apparent subunit Mr of 42,000. The remaining 5% were dimeric Mi-CK with an apparent Mr of 86,000 +/- 8,000. Octamerization was not due to covalent linkages or intermolecular disulfide bonding. Upon dilution into buffers of low ionic strength and alkaline pH, octameric Mi-CK slowly dissociated in a time-dependent manner (weeks-months) into dimeric Mi-CK. However, the time scale of dimerization was reduced to minutes by the addition to diluted Mi-CK octamers of a mixture of Mg2+, ADP, creatine and nitrate known to induce a transition-state analogue complex (Milner-White, E.J., and Watts, D. C. (1971) Biochem. J. 122, 727-740). The conversion was fully reversible, and octamers were reformed by simple concentrations of Mi-CK dimer solutions to greater than or equal to 1 mg/ml at near neutral pH and physiological salt concentrations in the absence of adenine nucleotide. After separation of the two Mi-CK species by gel filtration, electron microscopic analysis revealed uniform square-shaped particles with a central negative-stain-filled cavity in the octamer fractions and "banana-shaped" structures in the dimer fractions. Mi-CK was localized inside the mitochondria by immunogold labeling with polyclonal antibodies. A dynamic model of the octamer-dimer equilibrium of Mi-CK and the preferential association of the octameric Mi-CK form with the inner mitochondrial membrane is discussed in the context of regulation of Mi-CK activity, mitochondrial respiration, and the CP shuttle.     

Purification of mitochondrial creatine kinase. Biochemical and immunological characterization

Mitochondrial creatine kinase was purified from canine myocardium. The preparation exhibited a positively charged isoenzyme free of other creatine kinase isoenzymes and on sodium dodecyl sulfate gel exhibited a single protein band. Amino acid composition showed mitochondrial creatine kinase to be different from that of MM or BB creatine kinase and did not hybridize with the M or B subunits of the cytosolic forms. Antiserum was developed to mitochondrial creatine kinase which did not cross-react with cytosolic creatine kinases. Antiserum to cytosolic creatine kinase exhibited no reaction to mitochondrial creatine kinase. Utilizing the specific antiserum, a radioimmunoassay was developed for the specific detection of mitochondrial creatine kinase. Thus, mitochondrial creatine kinase was purified and shown to be comprised of a unique subunit which is biochemically and immunologically distinct from the cytosolic creatine kinases.     

Octamers of mitochondrial creatine kinase isoenzymes differ in stability and membrane binding

Octamer stability and membrane binding of mitochondrial creatine kinase (MtCK) are important for proper functioning of the enzyme and were suggested as targets for regulatory mechanisms. A quantitative analysis of these properties, using fluorescence spectroscopy, gel filtration, and surface plasmon resonance, revealed substantial differences between the two types of MtCK isoenzymes, sarcomeric (sMtCK) and ubiquitous (uMtCK). As compared with human and chicken sMtCK, human uMtCK showed a 23-34 times slower octamer dissociation rate, a reduced reoctamerization rate and a superior octamer stability as deduced from the octamer/dimer ratios at thermodynamic equilibrium. Octamer stability of sMtCK increased with temperature up to 30 degrees C, indicating a substantial contribution of hydrophobic interactions, while it decreased in the case of uMtCK, indicating the presence of additional polar dimer/dimer interactions. These conclusions are consistent with the recently solved x-ray structure of the human uMtCK (Eder, M., Fritz-Wolf, K., Kabsch, W., Wallimann, T., and Schlattner, U. (2000) Proteins 39, 216-225). When binding to 16% cardiolipin membranes, sMtCK showed slightly faster on-rates and higher affinities than uMtCK. However, human uMtCK was able to recruit the highest number of binding sites on the vesicle surface. The observed divergence of ubiquitous and sarcomeric MtCK is discussed with respect to their molecular structures and the possible physiological implications.     

Reconstitution of active octameric mitochondrial creatine kinase from two genetically engineered fragments.

Creatine kinase (CK) has been postulated to consist of two flexibly hinged domains. A previously demonstrated protease-sensitive site in M-CK (Morris & Jackson, 1991) has directed our attempts to dissect mitochondrial CK (Mi-CK) into two protein fragments encompassing amino acids [1-167] and [168-380]. When expressed separately in Escherichia coli, the two fragments yielded large amounts of insoluble inclusion bodies, from which the respective polypeptides could be purified by a simple two-step procedure. In contrast, co-expression of the two fragments yielded a soluble, active, and correctly oligomerizing enzyme. This discontinuous CK showed nearly full specific activity and was virtually indistinguishable from native Mi-CK by far- and near-UV CD. However, the positive cooperativity of substrate binding was abolished, suggesting a role of the covalent domain linkage in the crosstalk between the substrate binding sites for ATP and creatine. The isolated C-terminal fragment refolded into a native-like conformation in vitro, whereas the N-terminal fragment was largely unfolded. Prefolded [168-380] interacted in vitro with [1-167] to form an active enzyme. Kinetic analysis indicated that the fragments associate rapidly and with high affinity (1/K1 = 17 microM) and then isomerize slowly to an active enzyme (k2 = 0.12 min-1; k-2 = 0.03 min-1). Our data suggest that the C-terminal fragment of Mi-CK represents an autonomous folding unit, and that the folding of the C-terminal part might precede the conformational stabilization of the N-terminal moiety in vivo.     

Kinetic, thermodynamic, and developmental consequences of deleting creatine kinase isoenzymes from the heart. Reaction kinetics of the creatine kinase isoenzymes in the intact heart

Creatine kinase (CK) exists as a family of isoenzymes in excitable tissue. We studied isolated perfused hearts from mice lacking genes for either the main muscle isoform of CK (M-CK) or both M-CK and the main mitochondrial isoform (Mt-CK) to determine 1) the biological significance of CK isoenzyme shifts, 2) the necessity of maintaining a high CK reaction rate, and 3) the role of CK isoenzymes in establishing the thermodynamics of ATP hydrolysis. (31)P NMR was used to measure [ATP], [PCr], [P(i)], [ADP], pH, as well as the unidirectional reaction rate of PCr--> [gamma-P]ATP. Developmental changes in the main fetal isoform of CK (BB-CK) were unaffected by loss of other CK isoenzymes. In hearts lacking both M- and Mt-CK, the rate of ATP synthesis from PCr was only 9% of the rate of ATP synthesis from oxidative phosphorylation demonstrating a lack of any high energy phosphate shuttle. We also found that the intrinsic activities of the BB-CK and the MM-CK isoenzymes were equivalent. Finally, combined loss of M- and Mt-CK (but not loss of only M-CK) prevented the amount of free energy released from ATP hydrolysis from increasing when pyruvate was provided as a substrate for oxidative phosphorylation.     

Mitochondrial creatine kinase from chicken brain. Purification, biophysical characterization, and generation of heterodimeric and heterooctameric molecules with subunits of other creatine kinase isoenzymes

In a recent study it has been shown that mitochondrial creatine kinase from chicken brain (Mia-CK) and heart (Mib-CK) are two distinct isoenzymes differing in ten out of the thirty N-terminal amino acids (Hossle, J.P., Schlegel, J., Wegmann, G., Wyss, M., B?hlen, P., Eppenberger, H.M., Wallimann, T., and Perriard J.C. (1988) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 151, 408-416). The present article describes the purification and biophysical characterization of the mitochondrial creatine kinase isoenzyme from chicken brain (Mia-CK). Gel permeation chromatography, direct mass measurements of individual molecules by scanning transmission electron microscopy, and analytical ultracentrifugation confirmed the existence of two different oligomeric forms, dimeric and octameric Mia-CK, with molecular masses of 85 kDa and 306-352 kDa and with sedimentation constants of 4.9-5.3 and 11.6-12.0 S, respectively. In addition, it was tested if Mia- and Mib-CK can form heterodimeric and heterooctameric molecules with subunits of other CK isoenzymes. By denaturation in urea or guanidine hydrochloride and subsequent renaturation, MiaMib-CK and surprisingly also MiaM-CK heterodimers could be generated. In contrast, no heterodimers were obtained between Mib- and M- or B-CK. Furthermore, reoctamerization of a mixture of Mia- and Mib-CK homodimers led to the formation of MiaMib-CK heterooctamers. In these heterooctamers, the Mia- and Mib-CK homodimers remained the fundamental building blocks. No subunit exchange between adjacent dimers within the heterooctamer could be observed even after storage for 3 months at 4 degrees C. The relevance of these data on the structural organization of the Mi-CK octamer and on the physiological aspects of tissue-specific isoenzyme expression are discussed.     

Differential heat sensitivity of human creatine kinase isoenzymes.

Creatine kinase isoenzymes (MM, MB and BB) were isolated from human tissue by ion-exchange chromatography. The B subunit was found to be more heat sensitive than the M subunit. BB and MB isoenzymes respond similarly to heat inactivation. Our results are in contrast with the body temperature inactivation of the brain isoenzyme reported by Lindsey and Diamond.     

Yeast pyruvate carboxylase: identification of two genes encoding isoenzymes

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, pyruvate carboxylase [EC 6.4.1.1] has an important anaplerotic role in the production of oxaloacetate from pyruvate. We report here the existence of two pyruvate carboxylase isozymes, which are encoded by separate genes within the yeast genome. Null mutants were constructed by one step gene disruption of the characterised PYC gene in the yeast genome. The mutants were found to have 10-20% residual pyruvate carboxylase activity, which was attributable to a protein of identical size and immunogenically related to pyruvate carboxylase. Immunocytochemical labelling studies on ultrathin sections of embedded whole cells from the null mutants showed the isozyme to be located exclusively in the cytoplasm. We have mapped the genes encoding both enzymes and shown the previously characterised gene, designated PYC1, to be on chromosome VII whilst PYC2 is on chromosome II.     

Purification and characterization of human mitochondrial creatine kinase. A single enzyme form

Purification of human mitochondrial creatine kinase has been difficult and procedures that were highly successful in purifying canine enzyme failed for human mitochondrial creatine kinase. In the present study, we employed ultracentrifugation to remove the lipid, urea to prevent aggregation, followed by a final step of chromatofocusing which yielded a preparation of human mitochondrial creatine kinase with a specific enzyme activity of greater than 400 IU/mg. Biochemical and immunological characterization showed the preparation to be highly pure and free of even trace amounts of other creatine kinase isoenzymes. Antiserum specific for mitochondrial creatine kinase was developed which exhibited no cross-reactivity to cytosolic creatine kinase and mitochondrial creatine kinase did not cross-react with antiserum to the cytosolic forms. Marked differences were noted, both biochemically and immunologically, between mitochondrial creatine kinase and the cytosolic forms. Human mitochondrial creatine kinase was shown to have a molecular weight of around 82,000 and to be composed of two subunits of equal molecular weights around 41,000. Aggregates of mitochondrial creatine kinase were observed with molecular weights of around 200,000 in the absence of urea or if isolated from material after having undergone proteolysis. Isolation from fresh material or in the presence of urea inhibited aggregate formation for both canine and human mitochondrial creatine kinase. Despite claims of several investigators that mitochondrial creatine kinase exhibits two to three forms with varying molecular weights, our data indicate a single enzyme form made up of a subunit with a molecular weight of 41,000 and the high molecular weight aggregates appear to be induced artifacts. A radioimmunoassay was developed for human mitochondrial creatine kinase which, with appropriate modifications, should detect mitochondrial creatine kinase in human plasma.     

Comparison of the tissue-specific expression and developmental regulation of two closely linked rodent genes encoding cytosolic retinol-binding proteins

Cellular retinol-binding protein (CRBP) and cellular retinol-binding protein II (CRBP II) are two highly homologous cytoplasmic proteins that bind all-trans-retinol. We have recently demonstrated that the mouse genes encoding CRBP and CRBP II are closely linked on chromosome 9 and that both human genes are located on chromosome 3 (Demmer, L.A., Birkenmeier, E.H., Sweetser, D.A., Levin, M.S., Zollman, S., Sparkes, R.S., Mohandas, T., Lusis, A.J., and Gordon, J.I. (1987) J. Biol. Chem. 262, 2458-2467). We have now used RNA blot hybridization analysis to assess the degree to which these genes are coordinately expressed in fetal, suckling, weaning, and adult rat tissues. Both genes exhibit different developmental patterns of expression in liver, intestine, lung, kidney, testes, and placenta. In the intestine, CRBP mRNA was detected during the 16th day of gestation--prior to the development of a well-differentiated absorptive epithelium--and remained essentially unchanged throughout the peri- and postpartum periods. By contrast, the pattern of intestinal CRBP II mRNA accumulation closely parallels the times of first appearance, and subsequent proliferation, of the intestinal absorptive columnar epithelium, supporting the hypothesis that CRBP II is involved in the intestinal uptake or intracellular trafficking of this hydrophobic vitamin. In the fetal liver, both genes were expressed by gestational day 16. Whereas the concentration of hepatic CRBP mRNA increased markedly during the suckling and early weaning periods, CRBP II mRNA levels fell abruptly immediately after birth. These peripartum changes were not paralleled by remarkable alterations in the steady state levels of hepatic retinol. Marked changes in the expression of CRBP in the liver and of CRBP II in the intestine were also documented in pregnant and lactating female rats. These differences in CRBP/CRBP II gene expression strongly suggest that their proteins serve different physiological functions. The peripartum liver may provide a useful model for dissecting the relative roles played by these homologous proteins in retinoid metabolism as well as the factors which modulate activation and repression their genes.     

Molecular cloning and tissue-specific expression of two cDNAs encoding polyketide synthases from Hypericum perforatum

Two previously uncharacterized cDNAs encoding for polyketide synthases (PKSs), designated as HpPKS1 and HpPKS2, were isolated from Hypericum perforatum. The full-length HpPKS1 was 1573bp containing an open reading frame (ORF) of 1161bp encoding for a 386 amino acid protein. The full-length cDNA of HpPKS2 was 1559bp with an ORF of 1182bp encoding for a 393 amino acid protein. The highly conserved catalytic amino acid residues common to plant-specific PKSs were preserved in both genes. HpPKS1 and HpPKS2 exhibited distinct tissue-specific expression patterns in H. perforatum. The HpPKS1 expression was highest in flower buds and lowest in root tissues. The expression of HpPKS2 was found to be high in flower buds and leaf margins and low in leaf interior parts, stems and roots. The expression of the HpPKS1 was found to correlate with the concentrations of hyperforin and adhyperforin while the expression of HpPKS2 showed correlation with the concentrations of hypericins and pseudohypericins in H. perforatum tissues.