Induction of CD8+ T cells to an HIV-1 antigen through a prime boost regimen with heterologous E1-deleted adenoviral vaccine carriers

E1-deleted adenoviral recombinants most commonly based on the human serotype 5 (AdHu5) have been shown thus far to induce unsurpassed transgene product-specific CD8(+) T cell responses. A large percentage of the adult human population carries neutralizing Abs due to natural exposures to AdHu5 virus. To circumvent reduction of the efficacy of adenovirus (Ad) vector-based vaccines by neutralizing Abs to the vaccine carrier, we developed E1-deleted adenoviral vaccine carriers based on simian serotypes. One of these carriers, termed AdC68, expressing a codon-optimized truncated form of gag of HIV-1 was shown previously to induce a potent transgene product-specific CD8(+) T cell response in mice. We constructed a second chimpanzee adenovirus vaccine vector, termed AdC6, also expressing the truncated gag of HIV-1. This vector, which belongs to a different serotype than the AdC68 virus, induces high frequencies of gag-specific CD8(+) T cells in mice including those pre-exposed to AdHu5 virus. Generation of an additional E1-deleted adenoviral vector of chimpanzee origin allows for sequential booster immunizations with heterologous vaccine carriers. In this study, we show that such heterologous prime boost regimens based on E1-deleted adenoviral vectors of different serotypes expressing the same transgene product are highly efficient in increasing the transgene product-specific CD8(+) T cell response. They are equivalent to sequential vaccinations with an E1-deleted Ad vector followed by booster immunization with a poxvirus vector and they surpass regimens based on DNA vaccine prime followed by a recombinant adenoviral vector boost.     

A novel adenovirus type 6 (Ad6)-based hepatitis C virus vector that overcomes preexisting anti-ad5 immunity and induces potent and broad cellular immune responses in rhesus macaques

Success in resolving hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been correlated to vigorous, multispecific, and sustained CD8(+) T-cell response in humans and chimpanzees. The efficacy of inducing T-cell-mediated immunity by recombinant serotype 5 adenovirus vector has been proven in many animal models of infectious diseases, but its immunogenicity can be negatively influenced by preexisting immunity against the vector itself. To evaluate the less prevalent adenovirus serotype 6 (Ad6) as an alternative vector for and HCV vaccine development, we have generated serotype 5 and 6 adenoviral vectors directing expression of the nonstructural region of HCV (MRKAd5-NSmut and MRKAd6-NSmut). Immunogenicity studies in mice showed that the two vectors induced comparable T-cell responses but that only MRKAd6-NSmut was not suppressed in the presence of anti-Ad5 immunity. In contrast, preexisting anti-Ad5 immunity dramatically blunted the immunogenicity of the serotype 5-based HCV vector. Furthermore, MRKAd6-NSmut showed equivalent potency, breadth, and longevity of HCV-specific T-cell responses in rhesus macaques as the corresponding Ad5-based vector over a wide range of doses and was capable of boosting DNA-primed animals even if administered at low doses. These data support the use of the MRKAd6-NSmut for anti-HCV immunotherapy and, more generally, for the Ad6 serotype as a better genetic vaccine vehicle than Ad5.     

Adenovirus Specific Pre-Immunity Induced by Natural Route of Infection Does Not Impair Transduction by Adenoviral Vaccine Vectors in Mice

Recombinant human adenovirus serotype 5 (HAd5V) vectors are gold standards of T-cell immunogenicity as they efficiently induce also humoral responses to exogenous antigens, in particular when used in prime-boost protocols. Some investigators have shown that pre-existing immunity to adenoviruses interferes with transduction by adenoviral vectors, but the actual extent of this interference is not known since it has been mostly studied in mice using unnatural routes of infection and virus doses. Here we studied the effects of HAd5V-specific immune responses induced by intranasal infection on the transduction efficiency of recombinant adenovirus vectors. Of interest, when HAd5V immunity was induced in mice by the natural respiratory route, the pre-existing immunity against HAd5V did not significantly interfere with the B and T-cell immune responses against the transgene products induced after a prime/boost inoculation protocol with a recombinant HAd5V-vector, as measured by ELISA and in vivo cytotoxic T-cell assays, respectively. We also correlated the levels of HAd5V-specific neutralizing antibodies (Ad5NAbs) induced in mice with the levels of Ad5NAb titers found in humans. The data indicate that approximately 60% of the human serum samples tested displayed Ad5NAb levels that could be overcome with a prime-boost vaccination protocol. These results suggest that recombinant HAd5V vectors are potentially useful for prime-boost vaccination strategies, at least when pre-existing immunity against HAd5V is at low or medium levels.     

Vaccines expressing the innate immune modulator EAT-2 elicit potent effector memory T lymphocyte responses despite pre-existing vaccine immunity

The mixed results from recent vaccine clinical trials targeting HIV-1 justify the need to enhance the potency of HIV-1 vaccine platforms in general. Use of first-generation recombinant adenovirus serotype 5 (rAd5) platforms failed to protect vaccinees from HIV-1 infection. One hypothesis is that the rAd5-based vaccine failed due to the presence of pre-existing Ad5 immunity in many vaccines. We recently confirmed that EAT-2-expressing rAd5 vectors uniquely activate the innate immune system and improve cellular immune responses against rAd5-expressed Ags, inclusive of HIV/Gag. In this study, we report that use of the rAd5-EAT-2 vaccine can also induce potent cellular immune responses to HIV-1 Ags despite the presence of Ad5-specific immunity. Compared to controls expressing a mutant SH2 domain form of EAT-2, Ad5 immune mice vaccinated with an rAd5-wild-type EAT-2 HIV/Gag-specific vaccine formulation significantly facilitated the induction of several arms of the innate immune system. These responses positively correlated with an improved ability of the vaccine to induce stronger effector memory T cell-biased, cellular immune responses to a coexpressed Ag despite pre-existing anti-Ad5 immunity. Moreover, inclusion of EAT-2 in the vaccine mixture improves the generation of polyfunctional cytolytic CD8(+) T cell responses as characterized by enhanced production of IFN-γ, TNF-α, cytotoxic degranulation, and increased in vivo cytolytic activity. These data suggest a new approach whereby inclusion of EAT-2 expression in stringent human vaccination applications can provide a more effective vaccine against HIV-1 specifically in Ad5 immune subjects.     

Protective Efficacy in Sheep of Adenovirus-Vectored Vaccines against Bluetongue Virus Is Associated with Specific T Cell Responses

Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an economically important Orbivirus of the Reoviridae family that causes a hemorrhagic disease in ruminants. Its control has been achieved by inactivated-vaccines that have proven to protect against homologous BTV challenge although unable to induce long-term immunity. Therefore, a more efficient control strategy needs to be developed. Recombinant adenovirus vectors are lead vaccine candidates for protection of several diseases, mainly because of their potency to induce potent T cell immunity. Here we report the induction of humoral and T-cell mediated responses able to protect animals against BTV challenge by recombinant replication-defective human adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5) expressing either VP7, VP2 or NS3 BTV proteins. First we used the IFNAR^(-/-) mouse model system to establish a proof of principle, and afterwards we assayed the protective efficacy in sheep, the natural host of BTV. Mice were completely protected against BTV challenge, developing humoral and BTV-specific CD8⁺- and CD4⁺-T cell responses by vaccination with the different rAd5. Sheep vaccinated with Ad5-BTV-VP2 and Ad5-BTV-VP7 or only with Ad5-BTV-VP7 and challenged with BTV showed mild disease symptoms and reduced viremia. This partial protection was achieved in the absence of neutralizing antibodies but strong BTV-specific CD8⁺ T cell responses in those sheep vaccinated with Ad5-BTV-VP7. These data indicate that rAd5 is a suitable vaccine vector to induce T cell immunity during BTV vaccination and provide new data regarding the relevance of T cell responses in protection during BTV infection.     

Immunogenicity of recombinant adenovirus serotype 35 vaccine in the presence of pre-existing anti-Ad5 immunity

The high prevalence of pre-existing immunity to adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5) in human populations may substantially limit the immunogenicity and clinical utility of recombinant Ad5 vector-based vaccines for HIV-1 and other pathogens. A potential solution to this problem is to use vaccine vectors derived from adenovirus (Ad) serotypes that are rare in humans, such as Ad35. However, cross-reactive immune responses between heterologous Ad serotypes have been described and could prove a major limitation of this strategy. In particular, the extent of immunologic cross-reactivity between Ad5 and Ad35 has not previously been determined. In this study we investigate the impact of pre-existing anti-Ad5 immunity on the immunogenicity of candidate rAd5 and rAd35 vaccines expressing SIV Gag in mice. Anti-Ad5 immunity at levels typically found in humans dramatically blunted the immunogenicity of rAd5-Gag. In contrast, even high levels of anti-Ad5 immunity did not substantially suppress Gag-specific cellular immune responses elicited by rAd35-Gag. Low levels of cross-reactive Ad5/Ad35-specific CD4(+) T lymphocyte responses were observed, but were insufficient to suppress vaccine immunogenicity. These data demonstrate the potential utility of Ad35 as a candidate vaccine vector that is minimally suppressed by anti-Ad5 immunity. Moreover, these studies suggest that using Ad vectors derived from immunologically distinct serotypes may be an effective and general strategy to overcome the suppressive effects of pre-existing anti-Ad immunity.     

Intradermal delivery of adenoviral type-35 vectors leads to high efficiency transduction of mature, CD8+ T cell-stimulating skin-emigrated dendritic cells

Recombinant adenovirus (Ad) type 35 (rAd35) shows great promise as vaccine carrier with the advantage of low pre-existing immunity in human populations, in contrast to the more commonly used rAd5 vector. The rAd35 vector uses CD46 as a high-affinity receptor, which, unlike the rAd5 receptor, is expressed on human dendritic cells (DC), the most powerful APCs identified to date. In this study, we show that in contrast to rAd5, rAd35 infects migrated and mature CD83+ cutaneous DC with high efficiency (up to 80%), when delivered intradermally in an established human skin explant model. The high transduction efficiency is in line with high expression levels of CD46 detected on migratory cutaneous DC, which proved to be further increased upon intradermal administration of GM-CSF and IL-4. As compared with Ad5, these Ad35 infection characteristics translate into higher absolute numbers of skin-emigrated DC per explant that both express the transgene and are phenotypically mature. Finally, we demonstrate that upon intracutaneous delivery of a rAd35 vaccine encoding the circumsporozoite (CS) protein of Plasmodium falciparum, emigrated DC functionally express and process CS-derived epitopes and are capable of activating specific CD8+ effector T cells, as evidenced by activation of an HLA-A2-restricted CS-specific CD8+ T cell clone. Collectively, these data demonstrate the utility of rAd35 vectors for efficient in vivo human DC transduction.     

Interleukin-Encoding Adenoviral Vectors as Genetic Adjuvant for Vaccination against Retroviral Infection

Interleukins (IL) are cytokines with stimulatory and modulatory functions in the immune system. In this study, we have chosen interleukins which are involved in the enhancement of T_H2 responses and B cell functions to analyze their potential to improve a prophylactic adenovirus-based anti-retroviral vaccine with regard to antibody and virus-specific CD4⁺ T cell responses. Mice were vaccinated with an adenoviral vector which encodes and displays the Friend Virus (FV) surface envelope protein gp70 (Ad.pIXgp70) in combination with adenoviral vectors encoding the interleukins IL4, IL5, IL6, IL7 or IL23. Co-application of Ad.pIXgp70 with Ad.IL5, Ad.IL6 or Ad.IL23 resulted in improved protection with high control over FV-induced splenomegaly and reduced viral loads. Mice co-immunized with adenoviral vectors encoding IL5 or IL23 showed increased neutralizing antibody responses while mice co-immunized with Ad.IL6 or Ad.IL23 showed improved FV-specific CD4⁺ T cell responses compared to mice immunized with Ad.pIXgp70 alone. We show that the co-application of adenoviral vectors encoding specific interleukins is suitable to improve the vaccination efficacy of an anti-retroviral vaccine. Improved protection correlated with improved CD4⁺ T cell responses and especially with higher neutralizing antibody titers. The co-application of selected interleukin-encoding adenoviral vectors is a valuable tool for vaccination with regard to enhancement of antibody mediated immunity.     

CD8+ T effector memory cells protect against liver-stage malaria

Identification of correlates of protection for infectious diseases including malaria is a major challenge and has become one of the main obstacles in developing effective vaccines. We investigated protection against liver-stage malaria conferred by vaccination with adenoviral (Ad) and modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) vectors expressing pre-erythrocytic malaria Ags. By classifying CD8(+) T cells into effector, effector memory (T(EM)), and central memory subsets using CD62L and CD127 markers, we found striking differences in T cell memory generation. Although MVA induced accelerated central memory T cell generation, which could be efficiently boosted by subsequent Ad administration, it failed to protect against malaria. In contrast, Ad vectors, which permit persistent Ag delivery, elicit a prolonged effector T cell and T(EM) response that requires long intervals for an efficient boost. A preferential T(EM) phenotype was maintained in liver, blood, and spleen after Ad/MVA prime-boost regimens, and animals were protected against malaria sporozoite challenge. Blood CD8(+) T(EM) cells correlated with protection against malaria liver-stage infection, assessed by estimation of number of parasites emerging from the liver into the blood. The protective ability of Ag-specific T(EM) cells was confirmed by transfer experiments into naive recipient mice. Thus, we identify persistent CD8 T(EM) populations as essential for vaccine-induced pre-erythrocytic protection against malaria, a finding that has important implications for vaccine design.     

Ad35 and Ad26 Vaccine Vectors Induce Potent and Cross-Reactive Antibody and T-Cell Responses to Multiple Filovirus Species

Filoviruses cause sporadic but highly lethal outbreaks of hemorrhagic fever in Africa in the human population. Currently, no drug or vaccine is available for treatment or prevention. A previous study with a vaccine candidate based on the low seroprevalent adenoviruses 26 and 35 (Ad26 and Ad35) was shown to provide protection against homologous Ebola Zaire challenge in non human primates (NHP) if applied in a prime-boost regimen. Here we have aimed to expand this principle to construct and evaluate Ad26 and Ad35 vectors for development of a vaccine to provide universal filovirus protection against all highly lethal strains that have caused major outbreaks in the past. We have therefore performed a phylogenetic analysis of filovirus glycoproteins to select the glycoproteins from two Ebola species (Ebola Zaire and Ebola Sudan/Gulu,), two Marburg strains (Marburg Angola and Marburg Ravn) and added the more distant non-lethal Ebola Ivory Coast species for broadest coverage. Ad26 and Ad35 vectors expressing these five filovirus glycoproteins were evaluated to induce a potent cellular and humoral immune response in mice. All adenoviral vectors induced a humoral immune response after single vaccination in a dose dependent manner that was cross-reactive within the Ebola and Marburg lineages. In addition, both strain-specific as well as cross-reactive T cell responses could be detected. A heterologous Ad26–Ad35 prime-boost regime enhanced mainly the humoral and to a lower extend the cellular immune response against the transgene. Combination of the five selected filovirus glycoproteins in one multivalent vaccine potentially elicits protective immunity in man against all major filovirus strains that have caused lethal outbreaks in the last 20 years.     

Nasal delivery of an adenovirus-based vaccine bypasses pre-existing immunity to the vaccine carrier and improves the immune response in mice

Pre-existing immunity to human adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5) is common in the general population. Bypassing pre-existing immunity could maximize Ad5 vaccine efficacy. Vaccination by the intramuscular (I.M.), nasal (I.N.) or oral (P.O.) route with Ad5 expressing Ebola Zaire glycoprotein (Ad5-ZGP) fully protected naïve mice against lethal challenge with Ebola. In the presence of pre-existing immunity, only mice vaccinated I.N. survived. The frequency of IFN-γ+ CD8+ T cells was reduced by 80% and by 15% in animals vaccinated by the I.M. and P.O. routes respectively. Neutralizing antibodies could not be detected in serum from either treatment group. Pre-existing immunity did not compromise the frequency of IFN-γ+ CD8+ T cells (3.9±1% naïve vs. 3.6±1% pre-existing immunity, PEI) nor anti-Ebola neutralizing antibody (NAB, 40±10 reciprocal dilution, both groups). The number of INF-γ+ CD8+ cells detected in bronchioalveolar lavage fluid (BAL) after I.N. immunization was not compromised by pre-existing immunity to Ad5 (146±14, naïve vs. 120±16 SFC/million MNCs, PEI). However, pre-existing immunity reduced NAB levels in BAL by ∼25% in this group. To improve the immune response after oral vaccination, the Ad5-based vaccine was PEGylated. Mice given the modified vaccine did not survive challenge and had reduced levels of IFN-γ+ CD8+ T cells 10 days after administration (0.3±0.3% PEG vs. 1.7±0.5% unmodified). PEGylation did increase NAB levels 2-fold. These results provide some insight about the degree of T and B cell mediated immunity necessary for protection against Ebola virus and suggest that modification of the virus capsid can influence the type of immune response elicited by an Ad5-based vaccine.     

Vaccination with Replication Deficient Adenovectors Encoding YF-17D Antigens Induces Long-Lasting Protection from Severe Yellow Fever Virus Infection in Mice

The live attenuated yellow fever vaccine (YF-17D) has been successfully used for more than 70 years. It is generally considered a safe vaccine, however, recent reports of serious adverse events following vaccination have raised concerns and led to suggestions that even safer YF vaccines should be developed. Replication deficient adenoviruses (Ad) have been widely evaluated as recombinant vectors, particularly in the context of prophylactic vaccination against viral infections in which induction of CD8⁺ T-cell mediated immunity is crucial, but potent antibody responses may also be elicited using these vectors. In this study, we present two adenobased vectors targeting non-structural and structural YF antigens and characterize their immunological properties. We report that a single immunization with an Ad-vector encoding the non-structural protein 3 from YF-17D could elicit a strong CD8⁺ T-cell response, which afforded a high degree of protection from subsequent intracranial challenge of vaccinated mice. However, full protection was only observed using a vector encoding the structural proteins from YF-17D. This vector elicited virus-specific CD8⁺ T cells as well as neutralizing antibodies, and both components were shown to be important for protection thus mimicking the situation recently uncovered in YF-17D vaccinated mice. Considering that Ad-vectors are very safe, easy to produce and highly immunogenic in humans, our data indicate that a replication deficient adenovector-based YF vaccine may represent a safe and efficient alternative to the classical live attenuated YF vaccine and should be further tested.     

Adenovirus-Based Vaccines: Comparison of Vectors from Three Species of Adenoviridae

In order to better understand the broad applicability of adenovirus (Ad) as a vector for human vaccine studies, we compared four adenovirus (Ad) vectors from families C (Ad human serotype 5 [HAdV-5; here referred to as AdHu5]), D (HAdV-26; here referred to as AdHu26), and E (simian serotypes SAdV-23 and SAdV-24; here referred to as chimpanzee serotypes 6 and 7 [AdC6 and AdC7, respectively]) of the Adenoviridae. Seroprevalence rates and titers of neutralizing antibodies to the two human-origin Ads were found to be higher than those reported previously, especially in countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Conversely, prevalence rates and titers to AdC6 and AdC7 were markedly lower. Healthy human adults from the United States had readily detectable circulating T cells recognizing Ad viruses, the levels of which in some individuals were unexpectedly high in response to AdHu26. The magnitude of T-cell responses to AdHu5 correlated with those to AdHu26, suggesting T-cell recognition of conserved epitopes. In mice, all of the different Ad vectors induced CD8⁺ T-cell responses that were comparable in their magnitudes and cytokine production profiles. Prime-boost regimens comparing different combinations of Ad vectors failed to indicate that the sequential use of Ad vectors from distinct families resulted in higher immune responses than the use of serologically distinct Ad vectors from the same family. Moreover, the transgene product-specific antibody responses induced by the AdHu26 and AdC vectors were markedly lower than those induced by the AdHu5 vector. AdHu26 vectors and, to a lesser extent, AdC vectors induced more potent Ad-neutralizing antibody responses. These results suggest that the potential of AdHu26 as a vaccine vector may suffer from limitations similar to those found for vectors based on other prevalent human Ads.Due to their ability to induce potent transgene product-specific B- and T-cell responses, replication-defective adenovirus (Ad) vectors are being explored for use as carriers of vaccines for a variety of pathogens, including human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) (7), Plasmodium falciparum (9), and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (20). Initial enthusiasm for the use of Ad vectors based on Ad human serotype 5 (AdHu5) was dampened by the finding that preexisting antibodies to this virus, which are found in ∼40% of humans residing in the United States and up to 90% of humans residing in some African countries (28), can reduce transgene product-specific immune responses (16) by reducing vector uptake (19). Enthusiasm further decreased after the phase IIb STEP trial, in which an AdHu5 vector was tested for induction of protection in cohorts at high risk for HIV-1 infection. The vector failed to show efficacy in reducing acquisition rates or lowering viral loads in individuals who became infected and instead appeared to increase susceptibility to infection in humans with preexisting neutralizing antibodies to the vaccine carrier (4). As a result of these setbacks, the use of Ad vectors based on other less common serotypes of human Ads (1) or Ads isolated from different species, such as chimpanzees (21, 25), bovines (24), and canines (31), to circumvent preexisting neutralizing antibodies is being explored. Of these, vectors based on adenovirus family D (AdHu26) were shown to have a low seroprevalence in some countries (1) and are now viewed as promising carriers for Ad vector-based gene transfer.A number of studies showed that AdHu26 vectors are highly immunogenic in nonhuman primates (NHPs), where they induced potent transgene product-specific CD8⁺ T-cell responses (13) that, when they were combined in a prime-boost regimen with an AdHu5 vector expressing gag of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), achieved a sustained reduction in viral loads upon SIV challenge of vaccinated animals (14). Intriguingly, AdHu26 vectors have been shown to induce a CD8⁺ T-cell response in NHPs that is qualitatively superior to that induced by AdHu5 vectors. AdHu26-induced CD8⁺ T cells showed a broader response, recognizing more epitopes within the transgene product, and had a more polyfunctional response, in that vector-induced individual CD8⁺ T cells produced multiple factors rather than predominantly gamma interferon (IFN-γ) only (13). This suggests that AdHu26 may have fundamental differences in immunogenicity from other Ad vectors.To elucidate this further, we developed a molecular clone of AdHu26 and a number of recombinant AdHu26 vectors from which E1 was deleted and used these to test human samples for the prevalence of AdHu26-neutralizing antibodies and responding CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cells. In addition, we conducted a series of studies with mice to determine if this species showed an immune response to a transgene product delivered by an AdHu26 vector markedly different from that induced by the same transgene product delivered by other Ad vectors. Our results showed that AdHu26, strictly speaking, is not a rare serotype, especially in African countries, where the seroprevalence rates of antibodies to AdHu26 are high. Similarly, most humans carry AdHu26-reactive T cells, which in some individuals are present at very high frequencies. In mice, AdHu26 induces potent CD8⁺ T-cell responses that are quantitatively and qualitatively similar to those induced by other Ad vectors. AdHu26 and chimpanzee-origin Ad (AdC) vectors stimulated only marginal transgene product-specific B-cell responses in comparison to those stimulated by AdHu5 vectors but induced more potent neutralizing antibodies to their capsid antigens.     

Successful interference with cellular immune responses to immunogenic proteins encoded by recombinant viral vectors

Vectors derived from the adeno-associated virus (AAV) have been successfully used for the long-term expression of therapeutic genes in animal models and patients. One of the major advantages of these vectors is the absence of deleterious immune responses following gene transfer. However, AAV vectors, when used in vaccination studies, can result in efficient humoral and cellular responses against the transgene product. It is therefore important to understand the factors which influence the establishment of these immune responses in order to design safe and efficient procedures for AAV-based gene therapies. We have compared T-cell activation against a strongly immunogenic protein, the influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA), which is synthesized in skeletal muscle following gene transfer with an adenovirus (Ad) or an AAV vector. In both cases, cellular immune responses resulted in the elimination of transduced muscle fibers within 4 weeks. However, the kinetics of CD4(+) T-cell activation were markedly delayed when AAV vectors were used. Upon recombinant Ad (rAd) gene transfer, T cells were activated both by direct transduction of dendritic cells and by cross-presentation of the transgene product, while upon rAAV gene transfer T cells were only activated by the latter mechanism. These results suggested that activation of the immune system by the transgene product following rAAV-mediated gene transfer might be easier to control than that following rAd-mediated gene transfer. Therefore, we tested protocols aimed at interfering with either antigen presentation by blocking the CD40/CD40L pathway or with the T-cell response by inducing transgene-specific tolerance. Long-term expression of the AAV-HA was achieved in both cases, whereas immune responses against Ad-HA could not be prevented. These data clearly underline the importance of understanding the mechanisms by which vector-encoded proteins are recognized by the immune system in order to specifically interfere with them and to achieve safe and stable gene transfer in clinical trials.     

Transgene optimization, immunogenicity and in vitro efficacy of viral vectored vaccines expressing two alleles of Plasmodium falciparum AMA1

Background

Apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) is a leading candidate vaccine antigen against blood-stage malaria, although to date numerous clinical trials using mainly protein-in-adjuvant vaccines have shown limited success. Here we describe the pre-clinical development and optimization of recombinant human and simian adenoviral (AdHu5 and ChAd63) and orthopoxviral (MVA) vectors encoding transgene inserts for Plasmodium falciparum AMA1 (PfAMA1).

Methodology/Principal Findings

AdHu5-MVA prime-boost vaccination in mice and rabbits using these vectors encoding the 3D7 allele of PfAMA1 induced cellular immune responses as well as high-titer antibodies that showed growth inhibitory activity (GIA) against the homologous but not heterologous parasite strains. In an effort to overcome the issues of PfAMA1 antigenic polymorphism and pre-existing immunity to AdHu5, a simian adenoviral (ChAd63) vector and MVA encoding two alleles of PfAMA1 were developed. This antigen, composed of the 3D7 and FVO alleles of PfAMA1 fused in tandem and with expression driven by a single promoter, was optimized for antigen secretion and transmembrane expression. These bi-allelic PfAMA1 vaccines, when administered to mice and rabbits, demonstrated comparable immunogenicity to the mono-allelic vaccines and purified serum IgG now showed GIA against the two divergent strains of P. falciparum encoded in the vaccine. CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cell responses against epitopes that were both common and unique to the two alleles of PfAMA1 were also measured in mice.

Conclusions/Significance

Optimized transgene inserts encoding two divergent alleles of the same antigen can be successfully inserted into adeno- and pox-viral vaccine vectors. Adenovirus-MVA immunization leads to the induction of T cell responses common to both alleles, as well as functional antibody responses that are effective against both of the encoded strains of P. falciparum in vitro. These data support the further clinical development of these vaccine candidates in Phase I/IIa clinical trials.     

Comparison of Systemic and Mucosal Immunization with Helper-Dependent Adenoviruses for Vaccination against Mucosal Challenge with SHIV

Most HIV-1 infections are thought to occur at mucosal surfaces during sexual contact. It has been hypothesized that vaccines delivered at mucosal surfaces may mediate better protection against HIV-1 than vaccines that are delivered systemically. To test this, rhesus macaques were vaccinated by intramuscular (i.m.) or intravaginal (ivag.) routes with helper-dependent adenoviral (HD-Ad) vectors expressing HIV-1 envelope. Macaques were first immunized intranasally with species C Ad serotype 5 (Ad5) prior to serotype-switching with species C HD-Ad6, Ad1, Ad5, and Ad2 vectors expressing env followed by rectal challenge with CCR5-tropic SHIV-SF162P3. Vaccination by the systemic route generated stronger systemic CD8 T cell responses in PBMC, but weaker mucosal responses. Conversely, mucosal immunization generated stronger CD4 T cell central memory (Tcm) responses in the colon. Intramuscular immunization generated higher levels of env-binding antibodies, but neither produced neutralizing or cytotoxic antibodies. After mucosal SHIV challenge, both groups controlled SHIV better than control animals. However, more animals in the ivag. group had lower viral set points than in in the i.m. group. These data suggest mucosal vaccination may have improve protection against sexually-transmitted HIV. These data also demonstrate that helper-dependent Ad vaccines can mediate robust vaccine responses in the face of prior immunity to Ad5 and during four rounds of adenovirus vaccination.     

HIV Antigen Incorporation within Adenovirus Hexon Hypervariable 2 for a Novel HIV Vaccine Approach

Adenoviral (Ad) vectors have been used for a variety of vaccine applications including cancer and infectious diseases. Traditionally, Ad-based vaccines are designed to express antigens through transgene expression of a given antigen. However, in some cases these conventional Ad-based vaccines have had sub-optimal clinical results. These sub-optimal results are attributed in part to pre-existing Ad serotype 5 (Ad5) immunity. In order to circumvent the need for antigen expression via transgene incorporation, the “antigen capsid-incorporation” strategy has been developed and used for Ad-based vaccine development in the context of a few diseases. This strategy embodies the incorporation of antigenic peptides within the capsid structure of viral vectors. The major capsid protein hexon has been utilized for these capsid incorporation strategies due to hexon''s natural role in the generation of anti-Ad immune response and its numerical representation within the Ad virion. Using this strategy, we have developed the means to incorporate heterologous peptide epitopes specifically within the major surface-exposed domains of the Ad capsid protein hexon. Our study herein focuses on generation of multivalent vaccine vectors presenting HIV antigens within the Ad capsid protein hexon, as well as expressing an HIV antigen as a transgene. These novel vectors utilize HVR2 as an incorporation site for a twenty-four amino acid region of the HIV membrane proximal ectodomain region (MPER), derived from HIV glycoprotein gp41 (gp41). Our study herein illustrates that our multivalent anti-HIV vectors elicit a cellular anti-HIV response. Furthermore, vaccinations with these vectors, which present HIV antigens at HVR2, elicit a HIV epitope-specific humoral immune response.     

Pre-clinical evaluation of a replication-competent recombinant adenovirus serotype 4 vaccine expressing influenza H5 hemagglutinin

Background

Influenza virus remains a significant health and social concern in part because of newly emerging strains, such as avian H5N1 virus. We have developed a prototype H5N1 vaccine using a recombinant, replication-competent Adenovirus serotype 4 (Ad4) vector, derived from the U.S. military Ad4 vaccine strain, to express the hemagglutinin (HA) gene from A/Vietnam/1194/2004 influenza virus (Ad4-H5-Vtn). Our hypothesis is that a mucosally-delivered replicating Ad4-H5-Vtn recombinant vector will be safe and induce protective immunity against H5N1 influenza virus infection and disease pathogenesis.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The Ad4-H5-Vtn vaccine was designed with a partial deletion of the E3 region of Ad4 to accommodate the influenza HA gene. Replication and growth kinetics of the vaccine virus in multiple human cell lines indicated that the vaccine virus is attenuated relative to the wild type virus. Expression of the HA transgene in infected cells was documented by flow cytometry, western blot analysis and induction of HA-specific antibody and cellular immune responses in mice. Of particular note, mice immunized intranasally with the Ad4-H5-Vtn vaccine were protected against lethal H5N1 reassortant viral challenge even in the presence of pre-existing immunity to the Ad4 wild type virus.

Conclusions/Significance

Several non-clinical attributes of this vaccine including safety, induction of HA-specific humoral and cellular immunity, and efficacy were demonstrated using an animal model to support Phase 1 clinical trial evaluation of this new vaccine.     

Proteasome inhibition is partially effective in attenuating pre-existing immunity against recombinant adeno-associated viral vectors

Pre-existing immunity against adeno-associated virus (AAV) remains a major challenge facing the clinical use of systemic administration of recombinant AAV vectors for the treatment of genetic and acquired diseases using gene therapy. In this study, we evaluated the potential of bortezomib (marketed under trade name Velcade) to abrogate a pre-existing immunity to AAV in mice, thereby allowing subsequent transduction by a recombinant AAV vector of the same serotype. We demonstrate that bortezomib efficiently reduces AAV-specific IgG titres and moderates the cytotoxic T cell response in mice that have a pre-existing immunity to AAV2/8. Significant depletion of AAV2/8-specific IgG-producing plasma cells in secondary lymphoid organs and bone marrow was observed. However, this inhibition of the immune response by bortezomib was insufficient to allow subsequent re-infection with a recombinant AAV vector of a similar serotype. We show that this shortcoming is probably due to the combination of residual antibody levels and the inability of bortezomib to completely deplete the memory B cells that are re-activated in response to a repeated infection with a recombinant AAV vector. Taken together, the results of this study argue for the use of immunosuppressive therapies that target both plasma and memory B cells for the efficient elimination of pre-existing immunity against AAV2/8 vectors.     

Fiber and penton base capsid modifications yield diminished adenovirus type 5 transduction and proinflammatory gene expression with retention of antigen-specific humoral immunity

Fiber and penton base capsid proteins of adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) mediate a well-characterized two-step entry pathway in permissive tissue culture cell lines. Fiber binds with high affinity to the cell surface coxsackievirus-and-adenovirus receptor (CAR), and penton base facilitates viral internalization by binding alphav integrins through an RGD motif. In vivo, the entry pathway is complicated by interactions of capsid proteins with additional cell surface molecules and blood factors. When administered systemically in mice, adenovirus vectors (Adv) localize primarily to hepatic tissue, resulting in efficient gene transduction and potent activation of the host antiviral immune response. The goal of the present study was to detarget Adv uptake through fiber and penton base capsid protein manipulations and determine how detargeted vectors influence transduction efficiency, inflammatory activation, and activation of the adaptive arm of the immune system. By manipulating fiber and the penton base, we have generated highly detargeted vectors (up to 1,200-fold reduction in transgene expression in vivo) with reduced macrophage stimulatory activity in vitro and in vivo. In spite of the diminished transduction and macrophage activation, the detargeted vectors induce strong neutralizing immunity as well as efficient antitransgene antibody. Three of the modified vectors produce antitransgene humoral immunity at levels that exceed or are equal to that seen with an unmodified Ad5-based vector. The fiber-pseudotyped and penton base constructs with RGD deleted have attributes that could be important enhancements in a number of vaccine applications.