Macaranga ant-plants hide food from intruders: correlation of food presentation and presence of wax barriers analysed using phylogenetically independent contrasts

Many tropical ant-plants provide specialized ant partners with food, which may attract foreign ants parasitizing the mutualism. We present evidence for the ant-plant genus Macaranga , showing that ant competition has forced host plants to hide food resources and restrict access to the mutualists. In Macaranga myrmecophytes, the influence of ant competition strongly depends on the presence of slippery 'wax barriers'. Of all Macaranga ant-plant species, 50% have waxy stems that can be climbed only by the specific ant partners and not by other ant species. We compared the presentation of food (food bodies and extrafloral nectar) between waxy and non-waxy Macaranga host plants using traditional and phylogenetic comparative methods. Consistent with the hypothesized effect of ant competition, wax-free Macaranga host species had fewer extrafloral nectaries and more often produced food bodies under recurved or tubular stipules inaccessible to other ants; closed stipules were less persistent in waxy hosts. Several traits showed phylogenetic signal, but our finding of a more promiscuous food presentation in waxy Macaranga hosts was still supported by phylogenetic comparative analyses. We conclude that competition among ants is an important factor in the evolution of myrmecophytism, and that it has given rise to traits acting as protective filter mechanisms.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 84 , 177–193.     

Electrical nature of recorded signals during stylet penetration by aphids

Electrical penetration graph, EPG, is a term suggested for recorded wave forms during electrically stylet penetration by aphids. The EPG appears to have two components with different electrical origin; i. e., resistance and electromotive force (emf). Fluctuating aphid resistance in series with the amplifier input resistor causes a fluctuating voltage due to dividing of a DC potential in the primary circuit. This circuit potential is composed of a supplied potential and potentials from the preparation such as half cell potentials at the electrode surfaces. The emf component consists of fluctuating potentials generated within the preparation itself. The value of the amplifier input resistance is rather critical; a high value in proportion to the aphid resistance favours the emf component, and a low value emphasizes the resistance component. Although resistance fluctuation forms the largest component of the signal, some parts of EPG patterns stem from emf. The DC method provides a more detailed signal than an AC system. The current through the aphids appears very low and is not likeley to influence feeding, or other biological functions of the aphid.

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Propriétés électriques des signaux enrégistrés pendant les pénétrations au moyen des stylets des aphides.

Résumé Electro pénétration gramme, EPG, est le terme suggéré pour la méthode d'enrégistrement électronique de la pénétration des aphides. L'EPG est composé de deux origines électrique: la résistance variable, et la force électromotrice (fem). La résistance variable du puceron en serie avec la résistance d'entrée de l'amplificateur produit un voltage variable du à une division du potentiel électrique. Ce potentiel est composé d'un voltage appliqué, un potentiel de demi cellules sur les surfaces des électrodes, et de la composante fem déjà nommée. La valeur de la résistance de l'amplificateur est assez critique. Une valeur élevée de cette résistance par rapport à celle du puceron, favorise la composante fem, alors qu'au contraire une faible valeur accentue la composante de la résistance variable. Bien que cette résistance variable constitue en général la principale origine de l'EPG, quelques unes des ondes composantes, ou partis de celles ci, sont au contraire dues à la fem. Un montage au courant continu délivre un signal plus détaillé qu'un montage au courant alternatif, grâce a des proprietés de filtration de fréquence moins importante. Le courant traversant le puceron est très limité et ne semble pas agir sur l'ingestion, la salivation, ou sur d'autres functions biologiques.

     

环境因子对白蜡虫泌蜡的影响

白蜡虫是一种具有重大的经济价值资源昆虫,白蜡虫分泌的白蜡是一种重要的天然化工原料。研究了不同温度、湿度、光照等因子对白蜡虫泌蜡的影响,试验种群和自然种群研究结果表明,白蜡虫在15～25℃下能正常分泌白蜡和生长发育,在30℃以上的持续恒温下,白蜡虫能分泌白蜡,但泌蜡量低,不能正常生长发育,化蛹,2龄末期死亡;在高湿度（年相对湿度〉80％）、低光照（〈1600h／a）条件下,白蜡虫泌蜡量高,但种群不能正常生长发育,雌虫死亡率高,不能完成生活史。多因素分析表明,白蜡虫泌蜡对温度不敏感,影响白蜡虫泌蜡的关键因子是湿度和光照,适于白蜡虫泌蜡的环境因子为：温度15～25℃、年降雨量1300～2000mm,年相对湿度〉80％,泌蜡期5～8月份的相对湿度〉90％,年光照时数〈1600h／a。根据在峨嵋、昭通、昆明等地对白蜡虫的生态适应性观察和分析,白蜡虫泌蜡高的环境不是白蜡虫适生区域,白蜡虫适生区域主要生态指标为：年均温11～16℃,降雨量800～1200mm／年,年相对湿度65％～75％,年光照时数为1900～2500h／a。     

Optimum body size: effects of food quality and temperature,when reproductive growth rate is restricted,with examples from aphids

Most models of optimum energy partitioning predict variability in adult size, although not always explicitly. Increase in size is usually attributed to an increase in the growth rate or decline in mortality. The model presented shows that this may not always be the case. Even when mortality is kept constant in organisms with overlapping generations, a constraint on the maximum reproductive growth rate may lead, when the rate of overall growth increases, to either an increase or a decline in the optimum adult body size. It is shown that adult size could be a consequence of the differential responses of life history traits to changes in temperature and food quality. This is clearly advantageous for short lived organisms, like aphids, each generation of which only experience a very small part of the great seasonal range in conditions. This hypothesis complements Iwasa's (1991) explanation of the phenotypic plasticity observed in long lived organisms. The predictions are illustrated with empirical data from aphids. The model presented, which has been verified against a very large data set, indicates that for aphids the adult weight observed at a particular combination of temperature and food quality is that at which the population growth rate, r_m, is maximized. We conclude that predictions about adult size from models based on the partitioning of energy are more likely to apply to organisms that scramble for resources, i.e., “r” selected species. The size of organisms that contest for resources is more likely to be determined by competitive status and avoidance of natural enemies.     

2H NMR study of cuticular wax isolated from Hordeum vulgare L. leaves: identification of amorphous and crystalline wax phases

²H-NMR spectra of perdeuterated octadecanoic acid (C₁₈AC) and dotriacontane (C₃₂AN) added to isolated and subsequently recrystallized cuticular wax from barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) leaves were recorded between 298 and 328 K. They were compared to calorimetric excess heat capacity profiles. The NMR-data revealed the presence of both an isotropic and a rigid wax component at temperatures below 313 K. At temperatures above 318 K all labels are in the fast motion regime indicating a transition in the host matrix of the labels. The presence of the surfactant C₆E₃ reduced the order of the C₁₈AC-label but did not influence the order of the long chain alkane label (C₃₂AN). Most surprisingly, calorimetry revealed that most thermotropic events take place above the apparent melting observed in NMR. Furthermore, the macroscopic softening and melting of the wax took place in the same temperature regime as in the calorimetric experiments. The excess heat capacity traces were complex and indicated a heterogeneous structural composition of the barley wax. We interpreted the apparent conflict between the NMR and the calorimetric results by assuming a crystalline host matrix, formed by C₂₆-alcohol, the major molecular component of the wax. Within the crystal compartments there may exist an amorphous matrix with some crystalline microdomains of other wax components, including the NMR-labels. The melting of the amorphous environment leads to fast motional narrowing of the NMR spectral line of the microdomains without melting of the macroscopic structure. The measurements of diffusion coefficients (D) of radiolabelled C₁₈AC and C₃₂AN gave additional insight into the microstructure of the way architecture. Identical results in terms of D were obtained when radiolabelled C₁₈AC was added to the wax from either the exterior after recrystallization or when it was recrystallized together with the wax. It is concluded that in both cases the radiolabelled molecule is located in an amorphous wax phase, which forms a percolating path through the wax and is thus also accessible to the surfactant C₆E₃. In contrast, D of C₃₂AN in barley wax was about 2400 times higher when C₃₂AN was added to recrystallized wax from the exterior compared to wax samples recrystallized together with C₃₂AN. This indicates that in the case of C₃₂AN the alkane is trapped within separate microdomains of the wax during recrystallization and thus it remains essentially immobile, whereas it possesses a high degree of mobility when it is added from the exterior where it has only access to the percolating amorphous wax phase. Received: 1 February 1997 / Accepted: 27 May 1997     

Resistance of cereals to aphids: Interaction between hydroxamic acids and the aphid Sitobion avenae (Homoptera: Aphididae)

The hydroxamic acids in the seedlings of four varieties of winter wheat were extracted initially in boiling methanol in order to avoid enzymatic hydrolysis. The increase in numbers of aphids on these varieties of wheat were recorded. HPLC analysis of hydroxamic acids in the extracts showed the presence of DIMBOA-glucoside, DIMBOA-aglucone and its benzoxazolinone (MBOA). There was a highly significant negative correlation between the concentration of DIMBOA-aglucone in the seedlings and aphid performance. However, the association between aphid performance and DIMBOA-aglucone in the tips of the seedlings was weaker. In general aphid infestation of wheat seedlings slightly increased the concentration of all the hydroxamic acid derivatives. Moreover, aphids ingested hydroxamic acids and were able to detoxify some of the DIMBOA-aglucone they ingested.     

Rates of consumption of cereal aphids by some polyphagous predators in the laboratory

The consumption rates of nine species of Carabidae and five species of Staphylinidae which feed on the aphid Sitobion avenae (F.) were studied under conditions of surplus food in the laboratory. The mean daily consumption of aphids was between 2.5% and 45.6% of the predator species' mean body weight; the lowest values were for large Carabidae and the highest for small Staphylinidae. Separate significant positive relationships were found between the mean total weight of aphids consumed per day, and the mean weight of the adult of the carabid and staphylinid species at each temperature. A re-evaluation of published data also showed this. The slopes of the regression lines were steeper for the Staphylinidae than for the Carabidae and possible reasons are given. The regression equations could be used in simulation models to determine the maximum possible effects of these beetles on aphid populations.

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Résumé La consommation de Sitobion avenae F. par 9 espèces de Carabidae et de 5 de Staphylinidae a été examinée au laboratoire en condition de surapprovisionnement. Les expériences ont été répétées dans 4 conditions de températures variables caractérisées par des moyennes de 12°3, 16°6, 20°6 et 23°6. Les poids moyens de pucerons consommés variaient entre 2,5% et 45,6% du poids des prédateurs; les valeurs les plus faibles correspondant aux gros carabes et les plus élévées aux petits staphylins.Les différences entre sexes étaient vraisemblablement dues au dimorphisme pondéral. Une relation significative et positive entre le poids moyen de pucerons consommés et le poids moyen du coléoptère a été mise en évidence tant pour les carabes que les staphylins à toutes les températures (Fig. 1, Tableau 2). Cette relation ressort aussi d'une réévaluation des données publiées. L'utilisation de formules de régression dans des modèles de simulation permettra de prédire les effets des carabes et des staphylins sur les populations de pucerons dans ces conditions optimales.

     

Separation and analysis of steryl and wax esters from Dicranum elongatum

Abstract Complete separation of the steryl and wax esters in the subarctic moss Dicranum elongatum was achieved on MgO thin-layer plates without any notable alteration of the acyl and alkyl moieties of the esters. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of the hydrolyzed fraction showed that the sterols (campesterol, stigmasterol, sitosterol, cycloartenol, 24-methylene cycloartanol and an unidentified sterol) were primarily esterified with unsaturated fatty acids 18:2 ω 6, 18:3 ω 3 and 20:4 ω 6. In contrast, the wax alcohols (l-octadecanol, phytol and geranylgeraniol) were mainly esterified with saturated fatty acids with 16:0, 18:0 and 20:0 as major components. No great differences were found in the fatty acid pattern of the steryl esters between different portions of the shoot. Slight differences, however, were found in the proportions of ω 3 and ω 6 fatty acids. In the wax esters a clear decrease was found in the proportions of 18:0 and 20:0 acids with increased shoot age accompanied by a slight increase in the proportions of 14:0, 20:4 ω 6 and phytenic acid.     

Augmentation of beneficial arthropods by strip-management. 3. Artificial introduction of a spider species which preys on wheat pest insects

During a 3-year-experiment on strip-management a population of the spiderDictyna arundinacea (L.) was released in a winter wheat field.D. arundinacea built its webs with high preference at the ears of the wheat and 26–28% of the released spiders were rediscovered at the marked first web-sites some weeks later. Enclosure studies and prey samples from several sub-populations showed thatD. arundinacea caught almost exclusively wheat pest insects, withOscinella frit (L.), cereal aphids [Sitobion avenae (F.) andRhopalosiphum padi (L.); mainly winged specimens] and thysanopterans as main prey groups.D. arundinacea moved from the release site into adjacent successional strips, where it survived the harvest and successfully overwintered. From here, a repopulation of the wheat-strips in the next year occurred but the total abundance was so low that after this two-fold habitat change no high population density was reached. The ability of spiders, as unspecialized predators, to prey on wheat pest insects and the suitability of successional strips to preserve high spider densities by habitat change during harvest or other critical events are discussed.      

Ecological factors promoting the evolution of colony defense in aphids: computer simulations

Summary Colony defense has been reported in a limited number of species of aphids. This paper examines which life-historical traits have promoted the evolution of colony defense using two kinds of deterministic simulation models. These models postulate that first-instar larvae can counterattack predators and that the duration of this instar stage is a variable, subject to selection. Prolonging the first-instar span increases the proportion of defenders in the colony, while it results in a delay in reproduction. By calculating the optimal first-instar span, the optimal defensive effort of a colony under various ecological conditions could be estimated. Simulations based on the general model, which regards the number of adults maturing in a period as performance, predicted that a lower birthrate leads to a longer first-instar span (larger investment in defense). This condition also allowed the evolution of dimorphism in the first-instar span, which may ultimately result in the appearance of soldiers. Where birthrate declines with time, the first-instar span was predicted to be prolonged in later stages. Colony duration had little influence on the optimal first-instar span if the season is long enough to repeat generations. The galling-aphid model that assumes a fixed number of generations predicted that a longer duration of colonies leads to a longer first-instar span, but that birthrate has little influence on the optimal first-instar span. A tendency in defense reported in pemphigid aphids was consistent with the prediction from the galling-aphid model.     

Is p-hydroxybenzaldehyde a major constituent of epicuticular wax from Sorghum bicolor seedlings?

Free p-hydroxybenzaldehyde was not present in appreciable quantity on the surface or in the interior of week-old Sorghum bicolor shoots that had been heated to inactivate hydrolytic enzymes, nor was p-hydroxybenzaldehyde detected in epicuticular wax of greenhouse-grown sorghum ca 4.5 months old.     

Biogeography of the wax scales (Insecta: Hemiptera: Coccidae: Ceroplastinae)

The modern and native distributions of wax scales are documented and an area cladogram including seventy species is presented. Wax scales are distributed worldwide, but most species are native to either South America or Africa. Their native distribution pattern is discussed in relation to their host-plant specificity and to the dispersal and vicariance theories of biogeography. The vicariance theory is preferred, because the pattern can be explained satisfactorily by plate tectonics but not by dispersal from a centre of origin. The wax scale group probably originated in the combined South American–African continent at least 97 million yr ago.     

Volatiles from the epicuticular wax of watercress (Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum)

Volatiles from the epicuticular wax of watercress were collected by ether washing and examined using gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric analysi     

Production of wax esters in plant seed oils by oleosomal cotargeting of biosynthetic enzymes

Wax esters are neutral lipids exhibiting desirable properties for lubrication. Natural sources have traditionally been whales. Additionally some plants produce wax esters in their seed oil. Currently there is no biological source available for long chain length monounsaturated wax esters that are most suited for industrial applications. This study aimed to identify enzymatic requirements enabling their production in oilseed plants. Wax esters are generated by the action of fatty acyl-CoA reductase (FAR), generating fatty alcohols and wax synthases (WS) that esterify fatty alcohols and acyl-CoAs to wax esters. Based on their substrate preference, a FAR and a WS from Mus musculus were selected for this study (MmFAR1 and MmWS). MmWS resides in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), whereas MmFAR1 associates with peroxisomes. The elimination of a targeting signal and the fusion to an oil body protein yielded variants of MmFAR1 and MmWS that were cotargeted and enabled wax ester production when coexpressed in yeast or Arabidopsis. In the fae1 fad2 double mutant, rich in oleate, the cotargeted variants of MmFAR1 and MmWS enabled formation of wax esters containing >65% oleyl-oleate. The data suggest that cotargeting of unusual biosynthetic enzymes can result in functional interplay of heterologous partners in transgenic plants.     

白蜡虫蜡花微生物多样性分析

【目的】探究白蜡虫Ericerus pela(Chavannes)雄若虫分泌的蜡花中微生物的多样性,比较不同厚度蜡花(随雄若虫发育蜡质层厚度增加)中细菌及真菌的种类和变化。【方法】采用Mi Seq高通量测序方法对不同发育阶段白蜡虫雄若虫分泌的蜡花中细菌16S rRNA和真菌ITS进行测序,利用Mothur软件计算蜡花中细菌和真菌的操作分类单元(operational taxonomic unit,OTU)及其丰富度、Alpha多样性分析。【结果】细菌3个样品共获470个OTU,真菌2个样品共获264个OTU。细菌共鉴定出18门30纲92科173属;真菌共鉴定出3门15纲43科68属。其中丛毛单胞菌属Comamonas细菌在蜡花中为优势菌,分别占前、中、后期雄若虫分泌的蜡花中细菌总量的79.79%,41.61%和46.86%;枝胞属Cladosporium在前期雄若虫分泌的蜡花中占真菌总量的17.01%,隐球菌属Cryptococcus在后期雄若虫分泌的蜡花中占真菌总量的60.84%,是蜡花中真菌重要组成部分。【结论】不同发育阶段雄若虫分泌的蜡花中细菌及真菌群落存在差异,随着蜡花厚度增加,细菌多样性先增加后减少,而真菌多样性降低。     

Determination the population trends of cereal aphids and associated parasitoids by yellow sticky traps with reference to aphid management on wheat

Population trends of cereal aphids and their associated parasitoids inhabiting wheat plantations were monitored by yellow sticky traps. The identified aphids exhibited one seasonal peak for each and were found to be active during the first half of March. Data revealed that, Rhopalosiphum padi L peak occurred one week later than both of Schizaphis graminum (Rondani) and Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch). The numbers of aphid complex was recorded more at 90 than at 30 and 60 cm height. Hymenopterous parasitoids activity is synchronised with aphid species, whereas they appeared in small numbers at early and late wheat season and showed their peak on March, with a positive correlation coefficient with aphid populations. The tested compounds (Karate, Biscaya, Match 5% EC, Tracer 24% SC and Neem Azal T/S) showed 100% reduction in aphid numbers after 24 h post application. However, the general reduction percentages indicated 99.31 > 98.32 > 97.97 > 97.06 > 95.66%, by using the abovementioned compounds, respectively.     

Synthesis of wax esters by a cell-free system from barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Experimental evidence for a membranebound microsomal ester synthetase from Bonus barley primary leaves is reported. The results are consistent with at least two mechanisms for the synthesis of barley wax esters: an acyl-CoA-fattyalcohol-transacylase-type reaction and an apparent direct esterification of alcohols with fatty acids. Biosynthesis of wax esters was not specific with regard to the chain length of the tested alcohols. The microsomal preparation readily catalyzed the esterification of C₁₆-, C₁₈-, C₂₂- or C₂₄-labelled alcohols with fatty acids of endogenous origin. Exogenous long-chain alcohols were exclusively incorporated into the alkyl moieties of the esters. Addition of ATP, CoA and-or free fatty acids was not effective in stimulating or depressing the esterifying activity of the microsomal fraction. Partial solubilization of the ester synthetase was obtained using phosphate-buffered saline.Abbreviations P pellet - PBS phosphate-buffered saline - S supernatant - SDS sodium dodecyl sulphate     

Complex biopolymeric systems at stalk/epicuticular wax plant interfaces: A near infrared spectroscopy study of the sugarcane example

Naturally occurring macromolecules present at the epicuticular wax/stalk tissue interface of sugarcane were investigated using near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). Investigations of water, cellulose, and wax‐cellulose interrelationships were possible using NIRS methods, where in the past many different techniques have been required. The sugarcane complex interface was used as an example of typical phenomena found at plant leaf/stalk interfaces. This detailed study showed that sugarcane cultivars exhibit spectral differences in the CH_n, water OH, and cellulose OH regions, reflecting the presence of epicuticular wax, epidermis, and ground tissue. Spectrally complex water bands (5276 cm^?1 and 7500–6000 cm^?1) were investigated via freeze‐drying experiments which revealed sequentially a complex band substructure (7500–6000 cm^?1), a developing weak H‐bonding system (～7301 cm^?1), and strong H‐bonding (～7062 cm^?1) assigned to water—cellulose interactions. Principal component analysis techniques clarified complex band trends that developed during the desorption experiment. Bands from wax‐free stalk were minimized in the 4327–4080 cm^?1 region (C? H_n vibrational modes associated with long chain fatty compounds), while bands from the stalk tissue (particularly lignin and moisture) became more pronounced. This work is a comprehensive guide to similar studies by scientists involved in a variety of plant and fiber research fields. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Biopolymers 91: 642–651, 2009. This article was originally published online as an accepted preprint. The “Published Online” date corresponds to the preprint version. You can request a copy of the preprint by emailing the Biopolymers editorial office at biopolymers@wiley.com