Pest problems: The view of New Zealand federated farmers

Abstract

Agriculture is fundamental to the well being of the New Zealand economy. We are very much a trading nation and will continue, for the foreseeable future, to depend upon primary production for the generation of New Zealand's wealth.     

Pest problems: The view of the New Zealand Forest Owners' Association

Abstract

Plantation forests are very important to the New Zealand economy. They cover 1.3 million hectares (5% of the total land area) of New Zealand; 72% of all planted production forests are in the North Island, 40% in the central North Island. The total log volume cut is 14.8 million m³/yr, and the foreign exchange earnings from plantation forestry is $1.9 billion.     

Pest problems: The view of an environmentalist

Abstract

The key issue for me is the great need I see for enhanced public awareness of the significance of pests and of the importance of controlling or managing them. Without such clear public understanding, it is difficult to see how we, as a society, can stimulate the level of effort, commitment, and financial resources that is required of us at every level—from Central Government and Regional Councils to individual land owners. Reflecting on this has stimulated me to think about the ambivalence of the conservation and environment movement on this issue.     

Pest problems: The view of the Animal Health Board

Abstract

The national perspective that the Animal Health Board (AHB) brings to this forum is, of course, the control and, if possible, the eradication of bovine Tb from New Zealand. Our interest in pest management is in the wild and feral animals which are known to be vector/reservoirs of the disease. In this case the most notable and significant is the possum.     

Pest problems: The view of Nga Whenua Rahui

Abstract

Nga Whenua Rahui began in the early 1980s, when Maori owners of commercially unproductive lands in Waikare (Northland) were being pressured into felling their native forests or selling property in order to meet their management costs, such as rates, fencing, and control of weeds and pests. The original concept recommended by the then Director of Maori Affairs, Tom Parore, was that a “rental” be paid by the Crown to Maori land owners as an incentive to keep their last remnants of indigenous forest alive and available for public enjoyment, and to cover the associated management costs.     

The conservation of critically endangered flightless birds in New Zealand

The current status of Kakapo Strigops habroptilus and Takahe Porphyrio mantelli is described along with recent developments in programmes for their conservation. Both species were (at different times) thought to be effectively extinct, and both have been temporarily reprieved by the discovery of new populations. Population declines have continued, with Kakapo now reduced to less than 50 individuals and Takahe to about 150. Kakapo are especially at risk; 87% of the remaining birds are over 14 years old and only 17 females are known. Research on relict populations of both species has identified predation and competition from introduced mammals as major threats. Both species have high rates of egg infertility and low survival of young. Increasingly intensive management of both Kakapo and Takahe over recent years has included translocation to predator-free island refuges, supplementary feeding to encourage breeding, clutch manipulation, captive rearing and predator control. All known Kakapo have now been transferred to three island refuges, where the overall rate of population decline has slowed and supplementary feeding has apparently encouraged more frequent breeding attempts. Takahe conservation has concentrated largely on attempts to increase the population in Fiordland, New Zealand, through clutch manipulation and release of captive-reared young, but birds have also been released on four islands, which now hold 19% of the total population. The relict Fiordland populations of both Kakapo and Takahe were confined to apparently suboptimal habitat. Both species have successfully adapted to novel environments and foods when translocated, and the populations which now exist present improved opportunities for intensive management using a range of conservation techniques to enhance productivity and survival. Recent population trends of Kakapo and Takahe are reconstructed, and the contribution of research to their conservation is reviewed.     

Panbiogeography and conservation science in New Zealand

Abstract

New Zealand’s official conservation science framework, the Protected Natural Areas Programme (PNA), is evaluated in relation to current biogeographic/systematic methods and principles with reference to philosophy, taxonomy, information content, and historical geological/biological relations. The PNA Programme and its parent International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) framework is based on a phenetic system of classification that does not reflect process (phylogenetic) characters of ecological systems. The PNA philosophy of conservation science is shown to be essentialist, rooted in traditional medieval Western metaphysics, and out of step with current developments in biogeography, systematics, and ecology. Panbiogeography is an appropriate global perspective for developing a conservation science because it meets the requirements of homology, monophyly, increased information content, and empirical testability whereas the PNA programme does not. Establishment of a Panbiogeographic Track Atlas is proposed as a suitable conservation framework for historical ecology and biogeography. The atlas could provide an empirical natural resource inventory to identify priority areas for conservation at an economically acceptable cost compared to the PNA Programme. Application of cladistic techniques to ecological and biogeographic patterns in relation to the Atlas can provide aphylogenetically sound hierarchical classification for conservation science. The potential benefits of the panbiogeographic approach for conservation education and tourism are discussed.     

Ancient DNA and conservation: lessons from the endangered kiwi of New Zealand

Conservation genetics typically seeks to map the distribution of contemporary genetic variation across space, and to use the resulting genetic parameters to infer any likely short-term evolutionary consequences for rare and endangered species. Recent developments in the study of ancient DNA now enable the extension of genetic variation studies backwards in time and provide a context by which to interpret contemporary levels of genetic variation, in addition to any patterns of genetic change over time. Ancient DNA research can also help to determine past levels of genetic diversity, identify species' boundaries and reveal former ranges among morphologically cryptic taxa. Ancient DNA sequence data for the New Zealand kiwi (Apteryx spp.) are presented and we show that most ancient populations of rowi and tokoeka exhibited private mitochondrial DNA haplotypes. Moreover, we illustrate that the extinction of these populations has led to the loss of considerable genetic variation. We also use ancient DNA methodology to determine past species distributions for brown kiwi and great spotted kiwi whose bones are morphologically indistinguishable.     

Carabid beetle (Coleoptera: Carabidae) conservation in New Zealand

An overview of carabid beetles in the New Zealand conservation context is provided. Processes for threatened species recovery within the New Zealand Department of Conservation are outlined, and the Department’s two major beetle-related recovery documents (The Conservation Requirements for New Zealand’s Nationally Threatened Invertebrates, and The Carabid Beetle Recovery Plan) are discussed. A subjective consideration of the merits and drawbacks of both the documents, and the systems that support them, is presented, along with an option for the way forward for threatened species conservation in New Zealand.     

Bryozoan biodiversity in the New Zealand region and implications for marine conservation

Marine biodiversity and its distribution in the New Zealand region were determined using historical data for an appropriate indicator taxon, the Bryozoa. Bryozoans were identified as belonging to three communities, termed Intertidal/Shelf/Slope (ISS) and Deep-Sea 1 and 2 (DS1 and DS2). Biodiversity was assessed using measures based on relatedness of species, average taxonomic distinctness and variation in taxonomic distinctness. High values of biodiversity for the ISS community are particularly concentrated at both ends of two main islands of New Zealand; the biogenic substratum of the Three Kings Plateau and Foveaux Strait. High values of biodiversity for the DS1 community were primarily located on the seamounts of the northern edge of the Chatham Rise. Values of biodiversity for stations comprising the DS2 community were generally low. The relationship between bryozoan community composition/biodiversity and depth suggested that habitat availability/heterogeneity, sedimentary perturbation and primary productivity could be evoked to explain the pattern of biodiversity observed. The results of the study indicate particular areas of the shelf and deep-sea environment that could be protected in order to conserve New Zealand's marine biodiversity.     

One Conservation: the integrated view of biodiversity conservation

The current global situation requires urgent decision-making to reverse processes of mass extinction of thousands of species. As a way of showing the importance of joint actions in this process, we aim to present the concept of One Conservation as a new proposal for the integration of sustainability, in situ and ex situ conservation for the restoration of ecosystems. According to the United Nations, we are beginning the decade of ecosystem restoration and in association with the International Union for Conservation of Nature guidelines, we can join efforts in the conservation of the planet. The survival of many species of wild animals depends on the management of populations currently maintained in ex situ conditions (under human care). To facilitate the exchange of genetic material between in situ and ex situ populations, reproductive biotechniques have become a great tool, making it possible to restore species in their natural environments. For effective conservation to occur, there must be an integrated view of the problem as a whole, and action for solutions must take place jointly by different spheres of society. Even more, conservation must be carried out by the public sector, the private sector, the third sector, and not less importantly, the agricultural sector. Therefore, One Conservation is defined as an interconnection between ex situ and in situ conservation plans, anthropic actions in the environment, and research in different areas that encompass conservation.     

Postglacial history of New Zealand wetlands and implications for their conservation

Most New Zealand wetlands formed at or after the end of the last glaciation (c.?18?000 cal yrs BP). Those associated with major rivers and close to the coast tend to be young as erosive processes both destroy and initiate wetlands. However, there is a strong linear trend in initiations since 14?000 cal yrs BP, which suggests that geomorphic processes such as soil deterioration, landslides, sand dune movement and river course changes are constantly adding new, permanent wetlands. Most wetlands began as herbaceous fens but usually transitioned to shrub- or forest-covered bog?fen systems, in particular after the beginning of the Holocene (11?500 cal yrs BP). Raised bogs formed from fens during the late-glacial and early Holocene, when river down-cutting isolated them from groundwater inflow. As climates warmed through the late-glacial and early Holocene, wooded wetlands spread and over 75% of lowland peat profiles preserve wood layers. Large basins with high water inflow often contain lakes or lagoons and have maintained herbaceous swamps, whereas those with limited catchments have become almost entirely covered with forest or shrub. Wetlands in drier districts tend to have been initiated during the mid- and late Holocene as the climate cooled and rain-bearing systems penetrated more often. Ombrogenous montane and alpine bogs may have been initiated by the same climate change. Natural fires frequently burnt some wetlands, particularly within the vast bog complexes of the Waikato Basin, but many wetlands record occasional fire episodes. By the time M?ori arrived in the 13th century, about 1% of the landscape was covered with some form of wetland and most of that wetland was under woody cover. M?ori firing of the landscape began the process of removing the woody cover, which induced wetter, more herbaceous systems and initiated new wetlands. Deforestation of catchments in drier districts increased water yield that may in turn have created lowland fens and lagoons. European logging, fire and draining destroyed both pristine forested wetlands and fire-transformed systems from the M?ori settlement era. The loss of wetlands is now largely a crisis of continued degradation through draining, weed invasion and fire in already human-altered systems in productive landscapes. Wetland history can help assess values and inform goals for conservation of wetlands, but transformation of the lowland landscape has been so complete that an historically authentic endpoint is unrealistic for most wetlands. The major conservation emphasis should be on larger wetlands that provide a range of ecosystem services.     

The diet of pygmy sperm whales, Kogia breviceps, stranded in New Zealand: implications for conservation

The stomach contents of 27 pygmy sperm whales, Kogia breviceps, stranded on New Zealand beaches between 1991 and 2003 are reported. These individuals comprise 16 males, 10 females, and one for which no sex information is available. The diet was found to include fish and crustaceans, but is comprised primarily of cephalopods, with 0–526 lower beaks, representing an estimated maximum of c. 60 kg of cephalopod prey consumed by any one whale. Cephalopod prey is attributed to 23 species from 13 families, and is dominated by juvenile individuals of the families Histioteuthididae and Cranchiidae (adults of which usually occur at depths exceeding 400 m). Perceived threats to this whale, particularly those affecting distribution and abundance of prey species, are also discussed. These are the first data reporting the diet of this whale species in New Zealand waters. A comparison of the diet of K. breviceps is made with that of the sperm whale, Physeter macrocephalus from New Zealand waters, and with the diet of Kogia known elsewhere.     

Assessing significance for biodiversity conservation on private land in New Zealand

The assessment of ecological significance is a key part of a territorial local authority’s (TLA) responsibility to provide for the protection of areas of significant indigenous vegetation and significant habitats of indigenous fauna as required under Section 6(c) of the Resource Management Act (RMA) 1991. While a number of methods have been used to achieve this, these have been largely unpublished and there is considerable variability in the approach taken by different TLAs. We propose four criteria (rarity and distinctiveness, representativeness, ecological context, and sustainability) for assessing significance of indigenous biodiversity in terms of RMA Section 6(c). These criteria could form the basis for a consistent national approach to significance assessment. These criteria have been developed from early assessment schemes such as the Protected Natural Areas Programme. While there is no one “right” system for conservation assessment, we hope this paper will stimulate discussion amongst the ecological community on the best ways to undertake significance assessment.     

Some issues and options for the conservation of native biodiversity in rural New Zealand

Summary For the 70% of New Zealand under private ownership, native biodiversity conservation has to occur within a landscape that must also provide a productive return to land owners. Recent New Zealand legislation, especially the Resource Management Act 1991, promotes sustainable management on private land by allowing for the economic and cultural well-being of local communities while providing for the protection of natural resources including native biodiversity. We suggest that, to effectively conserve native biodiversity in rural landscapes, we need to consider four key issues: (i) what might be realistic goals for native biodiversity conservation; (ii) how might we better arrange different land uses to meet both native biodiversity and production goals; (iii) what is the optimum arrangement of native biodiversity; and (iv) how native biodiversity conservation can improve productive returns to land managers. Options to enhance native biodiversity conservation include a variety of incentives (e.g. management agreements, financial incentives and regulatory systems) and onsite management options (e.g. remnant management, restoration plantings, weed and pest control, use of native species for commercial and amenity purposes, use of exotic species to facilitate native biodiversity). The importance of taking a landscape-based rather than a paddock-based approach to management is emphasized.     

A broader view of conservation

A review of Conservation in a Changing World, edited by Georgina M. Mace, Andrew Balmford, and Joshua R. Ginsburg. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1998, 308 pp. $80.00 hard bound; $34.95 paperback.