The biology and life history of currant clearwing,Synanthedon tipuliformis (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), in Canterbury

Abstract

Details of the life cycle and biology of currant clearwing, Synanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck), in Canterbury, New Zealand, are discussed. The adults live for about 7 days, and are found from mid November to early January. The sex ratio approximates 1:1. Adults are active only when the air temperature exceeds 15°c, and peak flight activity is observed on cloudy days at 20-23°c. Males are attracted to females between 1400 h and 1600 h, and mating lasts for over 2 h. Fecundity averaged about 100 eggs per female, and fertility exceeded 98%. Egg incubation required an average of 19 days in the field; the thermal constant is 91 day degrees. The mean number of eggs per blackcurrant cane varied in different years from 2.68 to 13.54; there was no significant difference between blackcurrant varieties in the same year. Larvae entered the cane through openings or axillary buds and then fed on the pith until late April or May. Quiescence occurred during winter, and feeding resumed in late August or September. Larvae tunnelled 15.20 ± 0.74 cm of pith. It is suggested that there are six larval instars. Mean numbers of larvae per cane varied in the early stage from 1.91 to 7.36, and at the post-winter stage from 1.23 to 3.10. Pupation occurred in mid October, and the pupal stage lasted for up to 6 weeks; the thermal constant is 216 day degrees. Mortality factors discussed include establishment failure, parasites, pathogens, predators, larval combat, winter pruning, loss of pupae at cane breaks, and pupal eclosion failure. The first record of the fungus Cordyceps sp. attacking currant clearwing is reported.     

Natural mortality of currant clearwing,Synanthedon salmachus (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), in New Zealand

Abstract

In a wide-ranging survey of 11 blackcurrant blocks, mortality of currant clearwing, Synanthedon salmachus (L.), was found to range from 1.3% to 9.7% for larvae and from 5.3% to 23.0% for pupae. At least 51% of the mortality was caused by the fungal pathogens Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces farinosus, and Verticillium lecanii. One unidentified predatory carabid larvae was collected, and two parasites—Xanthocryptus novozealandicus and Diadegma sp.—were reared from clearwing larvae.     

The distribution and dispersion of life stages of currant clearwing,Synanthedon tipuliformis (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), in blackcurrant

Abstract

The distribution of life stages of currant clearwing, Synanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck), in blackcurrant bushes was investigated on two plots during 1971–75. Three ways of expressing the distribution are examined, none of which is totally acceptable. Generally less than 10% of eggs are found on the current season's growth, and since wood of this age group represents over 50% of the available universe, the proportion of eggs laid on it is relatively low. The proportion of the larval population in the younger wood increases until just before pupation, when over 80% of the population is in the most recent 2 years' growth. The 1-year-old wood harbours 50% of the early larval population, and a use for this information in assessments of the effectiveness of insecticide trials against adults is suggested. The dispersion of eggs and larvae of S. tipuliformis is shown by a number of indices to be aggregated. The frequency distribution is adequately described by the negative binomial. A common k, k _c, of 0.66 (95% confidence limits 0.57–0.80) for the egg stage was valid, but the k _c for the larval stage of 1.28 (1.09–1.56) was only marginally valid.     

A sampling plan for population dynamics studies on currant clearwing,Synanthedon tipuliformis (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Abstract

Sampling techniques for eggs, larvae, and pupae of the currant clearwing, Synanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck), attacking blackcurrant were developed, and their precision was evaluated. Reliable population estimates for the egg and early larval stages (standard error < 10%) were obtained by sampling one cane with at least two age groups of wood from the north and south halves of seven bushes in nine blocks. Similar precision was obtained for post-winter larvae from samples comprising three canes from each half of the bushes, but using this sampling scheme a lower precision (S.E.?25–30%) had to be accepted for overwintering mortality factors. The pupal population was estimated from the numbers of live larvae at the end of the post-winter feeding stage, and cross-checked from the number of emergence holes in the 1-year-old wood taken for egg sampling the following year. This procedure gave estimates of similar reliability to those for the egg and larval stages.     

Interaction between relative humidity and resistance to Dasineura tetensi in blackcurrant

1 Infestation by the blackcurrant leaf midge Dasineura tetensi and galling incidence on a susceptible (cv. ‘Öjebyn’) and a moderately resistant (cv. ‘Storklas’) blackcurrant genotype was studied in the field for two midge generations in the same growing season. On the resistant genotype gall initiation is delayed. 2 The relation between infestation and galling incidence showed considerable variation between the two generations. Galling symptoms produced by the second midge generation were weak on the resistant as compared with the susceptible blackcurrant. 3 Because larval development of that generation coincided with a period of dry and warm weather, it is possible that larvae on the resistant genotype suffered desiccation to a greater extent than larvae on the susceptible genotype where gall development was stronger. 4 The possible interaction of relative humidity and expression of resistance was investigated in controlled environment experiments. The resistant ‘Storklas’ and a susceptible (‘7801–31’) currant genotype were studied at two constant relative humidities, 30 and 70%. 5 Larvae of D. tetensi suffered from higher mortality and reduced growth rate on both genotypes in the low humidity environment. 6 There was also a significant plant genotype by humidity interaction on larval performance; no galls were produced and no larvae completed development on the resistant currant at low humidity. 7 There was a trend for a positive correlation between larval length and larval density on a plant at low humidity but not at high humidity.     

A damaging outbreak of arabis mosaic nepovirus in blackcurrant, the occurrence of other nepoviruses in Ribes species, and the demonstration that alfalfa mosaic virus is the cause of interveinal white mosaic in blackcurrant

In a crop of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), cv. Baldwin in Eire, chlorotic mottling and ringspot symptoms in leaves on plants and severe crop loss was associated with infection with arabis mosaic nepovirus (ArMV) and the presence in the soil of its nematode vector, Xiphinema diversicaudatum. This is only the second report of ArMV damaging a crop of blackcurrant. Tomato black ring (TBRV) and raspberry ringspot nepoviruses were detected in single plants of redcurrant (R. rubrum) in England and flowering currant (R. sanguineum) in Scotland respectively; each of these infected plants showed foliar chlorotic line-pattern symptoms. This is the first record of TBRV in redcurrant. A single blackcurrant plant in New Zealand showing symptoms typical of those described for interveinal white mosaic disease, contained alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV). When AMV particles were purified and concentrated from herbaceous test plants and mechanically inoculated to young blackcurrant plants, several became infected with AMV and most infected plants developed systemic symptoms typical of the original disease. This provides the strongest evidence to date that AMV is the causal agent of interveinal white mosaic disease.     

Arthropod pests of currant and gooseberry crops in the U.K.: their biology,management and future prospects

• 1 Approximately 10–12 species of Ribes plants are cultivated for fruit production, mainly blackcurrants, red‐ and whitecurrants and gooseberries. These crops are increasingly recognized as rich sources of vitamin C and anthocyanins, with production rising by 24% in Europe subsequent to 1998. To date, research into insect pests of Ribes has been fragmented, with little appreciation of how changes in climate and agronomic practices affect biology.
• 2 We review 12 key pests of currant and gooseberry crops in Northern Europe, with specific emphasis on their biology and current management options. These are blackcurrant leaf curling midge Dasineura tetensi, blackcurrant sawfly Nematus olfaciens, common gooseberry sawfly Nematus ribesii, European permanent currant aphid Aphis schneideri, redcurrant blister aphid Cryptomyzus ribis, currant–sowthistle aphid Hyperomyzus lactucae, European gooseberry aphid Aphis grossulariae, woolly vine scale Pulvinaria vitis, common green capsid Lygocoris pabulinus, winter moth Operophtera brumata, clear wing moth Synanthedon tipuliformis and blackcurrant gall mite Cecidophyopsis ribis.
• 3 It is anticipated that global climate change could lead to increases in the incidence of some aphids through increased overwintering survival and longer seasonal activity. Moreover, changes in management practices such as increased cropping densities (from 5400 ha^?1 to 8700 ha^?1) and machine harvesting could lead to pest outbreaks through optimal microhabitats and increased susceptibility to pest colonization.
• 4 Future management options are considered, focusing on integrated pest management approaches, including behaviour‐manipulating semiochemicals, predictive models, biocontrol and improved plant resistance through breeding.

     

Molecular ecology of some Cecidophyopsis mites (Acari: Eriophyidae) on Ribes species and evidence for their natural cross colonisation of blackcurrant (R. nigrum)

Ribosomal DNA from Cecidophyopsis mites from different Ribes species was amplified using the polymerase chain reaction and the products digested using restriction enzymes. After separating the DNA fragments on gels, it was possible to identify specimens of mites obtained from field samples by comparing the profiles of their DNA banding patterns with those of known Cecidophyopsis species. Using this analysis, a non-gall forming mite found infesting blackcurrant buds in New Zealand was identified as the gooseberry mite (C. grossulariae). On wild red currant (Ribes spicatum) from Finland showing two sizes of galled buds, the red currant gall mite (C. selachodon) was identified in the larger galls located at the tips of branches and a distinct mite in the smaller galls located on the lower parts of the branches. A mite with a DNA banding profile indistinguishable from this latter mite from R. spicatum was also identified in galled buds of blackcurrant genotypes growing in Finland, including those containing the blackcurrant gall mite (C. n'ftw)-resistance genes P or Ce. The DNA banding profile of this mite resembled most closely that of C. ribis , but was distinct from it. The occurrence of C. grossulariae and this distinct Cecidophyopsis mite on blackcurrant has implications for the genetic control of Cecidophyopsis mites and possibly for the spread of the reversion disease agent in this crop.     

海南栽培肾茶的化学成分研究

为了解肾茶(Clerodendranthus spicatus)的化学成分,从海南栽培肾茶地上部分分离得到11个化合物,经波谱分析分别鉴定为:吐叶醇(1)、丁香脂素(2)、3,4-二羟基苯乙醇(3)、甜橙素(4)、5,6,7,4′-四甲氧基黄酮(5)、5-羟基-6,7,3′,4′-四甲氧基黄酮(6)、6-羟基-5,7,4′-三甲氧基黄酮(7)、5-羟基-6,7,3′,4′-四甲氧基黄烷酮(8)、3,3′,5-三羟基-4′,7-二甲氧基-二氢黄酮(9)、松脂素(10)和熊果酸(11)。化合物3、9和10为首次从肾茶中分离得到。对化合物1~6进行活性测试,结果表明化合物3~5对乙酰胆碱酯酶具有一定的抑制活性。     

Inter- and intraspecific activities of compounds derived from sex pheromone glands of currant borer, Synanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)

Gas chromatography and mass spectrometry analyses of crude sex pheromone gland extracts revealed that virgin Synanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck), currant borer (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) females, produced 6 compounds, structurally related to sex pheromone components of clearwing moths. By comparison of retention times and mass spectra of natural products with corresponding properties of synthetic standards, these compounds were identified as: (2E,13Z)-octadeca-2,13-dien-1-yl acetate (E2,Z13-18:OAc), (3E,13Z)-octadeca-3,13-dien-1-yl acetate (E3,Z13-18:OAc), (13Z)-octadec-13-en-1-yl acetate (Z13-18:OAc), (2E,13Z)-octadeca-2,13-dien-1-ol (E2,Z13-18:OH), (13Z)-octadec-13-en-1-ol (Z13-18:OH) and octadecan-1-ol (18:OH) in the ratio 100:0.7:2.7:3.2:traces:traces. The first 3 compounds were previously known to occur in the sex pheromone gland extracts of currant borers, while the last 3 chemicals are now reported for the first time. Trapping tests carried out in the black currant field revealed that E2,Z13-18:OAc, when tested separately, attracted S. tipuliformis males, while addition of E3,Z13-18:OAc to the main component increased the effectiveness of E2,Z13-18:OAc over seven times. The attractiveness of 6 component lures did not differ significantly from the one of the binary mixture, confirming that E2,Z13-18:OAc and E3,Z13-18:OAc in the ratio100:0.7 are essential sex pheromone components of S. tipuliformis. Trapping tests carried out at the dwelling place of Synanthedon scoliaeformis (Borkhausen) (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) revealed that, in addition to intraspecific synergistic effect, E3,Z13-18:OAc increased the specificity of the pheromone signal of S. tipuliformis, acting by intraspecific mode as an attraction antagonist against S. scoliaeformis males. By this way, it ensured the specificity of the sex attraction signal of the currant borer. Consequently, both compounds E2,Z13-18:OAc and E3,Z13-18:OAc have to be present in pheromone formulations used for monitoring and/or control of S. tipuliformis to avoid effecting non-target species. Other compounds identified from the sex pheromone gland of S. tipuliformis did not show any significant interspecific activity for males of S. scoliaeformis, however, they provide a basis to achieve specificity of a pheromone signal of S. tipuliformis and could act as attraction antagonists against other clearwing moth species which, like S. tipuliformis, employ E2,Z13-18:OAc as their sex pheromone component.     

Detection of Alzheimer's disease and dementia in the preclinical phase: population based cohort study

ObjectivesTo evaluate a simple three step procedure to identify people in the general population who are in the preclinical phase of Alzheimer''s disease and dementia.DesignThree year population based cohort study.SettingKungsholmen cohort, Stockholm, Sweden.Participants1435 people aged 75-95 years without dementia.AssessmentsSingle question asking about memory complaints, assessment by mini-mental state examination, and neuropsychological testing.ResultsNone of the three instruments was sufficiently predictive of Alzheimer''s disease and dementia when administered separately. After participants had been screened for memory complaints and global cognitive impairment, specific tests of word recall and verbal fluency had positive predictive values for dementia of 85-100% (95% confidence intervals range from 62% to 100%). However, only 18% of future dementia cases were identified in the preclinical phase by this three step procedure. Memory complaints were the most sensitive indicator of Alzheimer''s disease and dementia in the whole population, but only half the future dementia cases reported memory problems three years before diagnosis.ConclusionThis three step procedure, which simulates what might occur in clinical practice, has a high positive predictive value for dementia, although only a small number of future cases can be identified.

What is already known on this topic

Alzheimer''s disease is characterised by a preclinical phase, during which cognitive deficits are seen before diagnosisElderly people with subjective memory complaints and objective global cognitive impairment have a high risk of developing Alzheimer''s disease and dementia

What this study adds

This three step procedure (self report of memory complaints, test of global cognitive functioning, and then domain specific cognitive tests) has a positive predictivity of 85-100% for Alzheimer''s disease and dementia at three yearsHowever, only 18% of people in the preclinical phase can be identified using this procedureAbout half of the people in the preclinical phase of Alzheimer''s disease and dementia do not report problems with their memory three years before diagnosis     

海南天然林与橡胶林蜘蛛多样性比较

为探索天然林和橡胶林蜘蛛多样性现状,于2010年8月在海南黎母山自然保护区选取天然林和橡胶林,采用扫网法、陷阱法和单位面积法收集蜘蛛标本,分析两种林型之间蜘蛛组成、多样性和功能群差异,并以蜘蛛科和数量分布为属性进行主成分分析(PCA),探讨林型中样方之间蜘蛛群落的相似性。共采集蜘蛛标本3609头,用于统计分析的成蛛969头,归属于23科,162种。天然林20科,100种,优势类群为跳蛛科、球蛛科和园蛛科;橡胶林17科,87种,优势类群为肖蛸蛛科、狼蛛科和猫蛛科。从蜘蛛的数量分布看,橡胶林蜘蛛个体密度显著高于天然林;而天然林多样性指数和丰富度指数显著高于橡胶林。橡胶林中结圆网型和游猎型蜘蛛显著高于天然林,结皿网型显著低于天然林,伏击型不存在显著性差异。PCA分析结果表明,24个样方趋于分成天然林和橡胶林2组,并且天然林样方之间相似性极高,而橡胶林样方之间相似性相对较低。以上结果表明:(1)橡胶林替代天然林后蜘蛛群落结构发生变化,多样性降低;(2)增加生境结构的复杂性和减少人为干扰对保护和恢复物种多样性有重要意义。     

Midlife vascular risk factors and Alzheimer's disease in later life: longitudinal,population based study

Objective To examine the relation of midlife raised blood pressure and serum cholesterol concentrations to Alzheimer''s disease in later life.Design Prospective, population based study.SettingPopulations of Kuopio and Joensuu, eastern Finland.ParticipantsParticipants were derived from random, population based samples previously studied in a survey carried out in 1972, 1977, 1982, or 1987. After an average of 21 years'' follow up, a total of 1449 (73%) participants aged 65-79 took part in the re-examination in 1998.Results People with raised systolic blood pressure (⩾160 mm Hg) or high serum cholesterol concentration (⩾6.5 mmol/l) in midlife had a significantly higher risk of Alzheimer''s disease in later life, even after adjustment for age, body mass index, education, vascular events, smoking status, and alcohol consumption, than those with normal systolic blood pressure (odds ratio 2.3, 95% confidence interval 1.0 to 5.5) or serum cholesterol (odds ratio 2.1, 1.0 to 4.4). Participants with both of these risk factors in midlife had a significantly higher risk of developing Alzheimer''s disease than those with either of the risk factors alone (odds ratio 3.5, 1.6 to 7.9). Diastolic blood pressure in midlife had no significant effect on the risk of Alzheimer''s disease.Conclusion Raised systolic blood pressure and high serum cholesterol concentration, and in particular the combination of these risks, in midlife increase the risk of Alzheimer''s disease in later life.

What is already known on this topic

Vascular risk factors may play an important part as risk factors for Alzheimer''s diseaseNo population based studies have evaluated prospectively the impact of both midlife blood pressure and cholesterol concentration in both men and women on the subsequent development of Alzheimer''s disease

What this study adds

Raised systolic blood pressure and high serum cholesterol concentration, and in particular the combination of these risks, in midlife increased the risk of Alzheimer''s disease in later lifeRaised systolic blood pressure and hypercholesterolaemia may have a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer''s disease; more emphasis should be placed on identification and appropriate treatment of these conditions     

Field testing of the insect parasitic nematode,Neoaplectana bibionis [Nematoda: Steinernematidae] against currant borer moth,Synanthedon tipuliformis [Lep.: Sesiidae] in blackcurrants

Spraying of water suspensions ofNeoaplectana bibionis Bovien on established blackcurrant bushes infested with currant borer moth,Synanthedon tipuliformis (Clerck), resulted in up to 90% mortality of larvae. Mortality was influenced by dosage, water volume, age of wood and time of application. Some nematodes migrated to new tunnels resulting in an increase in parasitization with time. No phytotoxicity was observed on any of the treated bushes. The cost of nematode application may be comparable to that of insecticides without any of the associated problems.     

Susceptibility of apple clearwing moth larvae,Synanthedon myopaeformis (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) to Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium brunneum

Apple clearwing moth larvae, Synanthedon myopaeformis (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) were found to be susceptible to infection by two entomopathogenic fungi: an indigenous fungus isolated from S. myopaeformis cadavers and identified as Metarhizium brunneum (Petch); and Beauveria bassiana isolate GHA. In laboratory bioassays, larvae exhibited dose related mortality after exposure to both the M. brunneum and Beauveria bassiana with 7 day LC₅₀'s of 2.9×10⁵ and 3.4×10⁵ spores/mL, respectively. Larval mortalities caused by the two isolates at 1×10⁶ spores/mL were not significantly different and 73% of the M. brunneum-treated, and 76% of the B. bassiana-treated larvae were dead 7 days post treatment, with LT₅₀'s of 5.5 and 5.1 days, respectively.     

The ghost of Christmas past: health effects of poverty in London in 1896 and 1991

ObjectivesTo compare the extent to which late 20th century patterns of mortality in London are predicted by contemporary patterns of poverty and by late 19th century patterns of poverty. To test the hypothesis that the pattern of mortality from causes known to be related to deprivation in early life can be better predicted by the distribution of poverty in the late 19th century than by that in the late 20th century.DesignData from Charles Booth''s survey of inner London in 1896 were digitised and matched to contemporary local government wards. Ward level indices of relative poverty were derived from Booth''s survey and the 1991 UK census of population. All deaths which took place within the surveyed area between 1991 and 1995 were identified and assigned to contemporary local government wards. Standardised mortality ratios for various causes of death were calculated for each ward for all ages, under age 65, and over age 65. Simple correlation and partial correlation analysis were used to estimate the contribution of the indices of poverty from 1896 and 1991 in predicting ward level mortality ratios in the early 1990s.SettingInner London.ResultsFor many causes of death in London, measures of deprivation made around 1896 and 1991 both contributed strongly to predicting the current spatial distribution. Contemporary mortality from diseases which are known to be related to deprivation in early life (stomach cancer, stroke, lung cancer) is predicted more strongly by the distribution of poverty in 1896 than that in 1991. In addition, all cause mortality among people aged over 65 was slightly more strongly related to the geography of poverty in the late 19th century than to its contemporary distribution.ConclusionsContemporary patterns of some diseases have their roots in the past. The fundamental relation between spatial patterns of social deprivation and spatial patterns of mortality is so robust that a century of change in inner London has failed to disrupt it.     

人工诱导海南龙血竭的化学成分研究

为了解人工诱导海南龙血树(Dracaena cambodiana)所产血竭的化学成分,从其乙醇提取物中分离得到10个化合物,经波谱分析分别鉴定为socotrin-4?-ol(1)、homoisosocotrin-4?-ol(2)、(E)-3-(3,4-dihydroxybenzylidene)-7-hydroxy-chroman-4-one(3)、5-hydroxy-7-methoxy-3-(4?-hydroxybenzyl)-4-chromanone (4)、3-去氧苏木查耳酮(5)、苏木查耳酮(6)、7,4?-二羟基黄酮(7)、7,4?-二羟基-8-甲基黄酮(8)、丁香树脂醇(9)和邻苯二甲酸二(2-乙基己基)酯(10)。化合物1～10均为首次从人工诱导海南龙血树所产血竭中分离得到,其中化合物8为新天然产物,化合物3～6为首次从血竭中分离得到。化合物7和8对耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌具有生长抑制作用。     

Lowering of oxidative stress improves endothelial function in healthy subjects with habitually low intake of fruit and vegetables: A randomized controlled trial of antioxidant- and polyphenol-rich blackcurrant juice

Inadequate intake of the recommended five-a-day fruit and vegetable portions might contribute to increased cardiovascular disease risk. We assessed the effects of dietary intake of a blackcurrant juice drink, rich in vitamin C and polyphenols, on oxidative stress and vascular function. This was a double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group study of 66 healthy adults who habitually consume <2 portions of fruit and vegetables per day. Participants were randomly allocated to consume 250 ml of placebo (flavored water) or low or high blackcurrant juice drink four times a day for 6 weeks. Flow-mediated dilation (FMD) and plasma concentrations of F₂-isoprostanes and vitamin C were measured. In the high blackcurrant juice drink group FMD increased significantly (5.8±3.1 to 6.9±3.1%, P=0.022) compared with the placebo group (6.0±2.2 to 5.1±2.4%). Plasma vitamin C concentration increased significantly in the low (38.6±17.6 to 49.4±21.0 µmol/L, P<0.001) and high (34.6±20.4 to 73.8±23.3 µmol/L, P<0.001) blackcurrant juice drink groups compared with the placebo group (38.1±21.0 to 29.0±17.6 µmol/L). F₂-isoprostane concentrations were significantly lower in the high blackcurrant juice drink group (225±64 pg/ml) compared with the low blackcurrant juice drink (257±69 pg/ml, P=0.002) and placebo group (254±59 pg/ml, P=0.003). At follow-up, changes in plasma vitamin C correlated significantly with changes in FMD (r=0.308, P=0.044). Consumption of blackcurrant juice drink high in vitamin C and polyphenols can decrease oxidative stress and improve vascular health in individuals with habitually low dietary fruit and vegetable intake.     

An artificial diet for larvae of the potato tuber moth

Potato tuber moth, Phthorimaea ( = Gnorimoschema) operculella (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), was reared from egg to adult for 3 generations on an artificial diet. At 30±2°c with a 16‐h photoperiod the total life cycle was completed in 23 days, compared with 18.5 days on potato tubers. Average life cycle data from the 3 generations reared on diet (with corresponding data from tubers in parentheses) are: larval period, 13.0(11.8) days; pupal period, 5–6(4–5) days; survival to adult, 76.1(100)%; fecundity, 102(169) eggs/?; pupal wt‐ ? 8.3(11.4) mg, ? 7.7(9.1) mg.