Timing,exotic terranes,angiosperm diversification,and panbiogeography

Abstract

The relationships between panbiogeography, geology, and systematics are discussed against a historical perspective of biogeography. Recent refinements of the panbiogeographic method are welcomed, but it is emphasised that the most important requirements in application of the panbiogeographic method, as in all biogeographic analysis, are freedom from prior bias and objectivity of judgement The times of major phases in angiosperm diversification are determined for the Early Cretaceous (primarily by the Potomac Group megaflora/palynoflora sequence), and subsequent phases occurring in the Late Cretaceous and the Tertiary (principally by the global pollen record). This dating of events in angiosperm evolution permits the following conclusions: the disintegration of Pacifica, according to the scheme of Nur & Ben-Avraham, would occur too soon to have any relevance for angiosperm biogeography; the dissolution of Gondwana occurred too early to explain disjunct distributions in the more recently evolved angiosperm groups, e.g., Compositae; long-distance drift of exotic terranes is not likely to have much relevance for angiosperm biogeography; and Owen’s scenario of continental drift on an expanding earth may well provide a solution to the problem of migration between north and south hemisphere temperate floras in the Early and Mid-Cretaceous. Aspects of the biogeography of Nothofagus are discussed in the context of some of the other points raised.     

New Zealand Lepidoptera: Basic biogeography

Abstract

The composition of the New Zealand Lepidoptera fauna is briefly described, and affinities within Tortricidae analysed. Sixty-five genera are used to indicate four possible sets of relationships, but shortcomings of taxonomic interpretations are outlined. Except for species with a wide dispersal range (some 6% of the fauna) most show affinities consonant with terrane biogeography. The panbiogeographic methodology is a potent tool in systematics, giving direction to the research effort.     

Arthropoda of the subantarctic islands of New Zealand

Ischyroplectron isolatum (Hutton) is redescribed from the Bounty Islands, south‐east of New Zealand. The relationships of the subantarctic Orthoptera are discussed. A key is given to the four genera of Rhaphidophoridae.     

Local or global? Biogeography of some primitive Lepidoptera in New Zealand

Abstract

Distribution maps are presented for 30 species of small forest moths representing two genera of Micropterigidae and one genus of Mnesarchaeidae. Evolutionary patterns are interpreted by means of the panbiogeographic method in order to seek a relationship between dispersal patterns within New Zealand and the overseas links of the taxa in question. It is established that different evolutionary lines indeed exhibit different geographic dispersal patterns within New Zealand. Moreover, certain characteristics of these patterns can be attributed to the overseas affinities of the groups, i.e., groups of organisms with New Caledonian or Australian affinities have a western disjunct pattern, whereas those with circum-Pacific affinities have a different pattern in which the taxa occupying a basal position in the phylogeny are to be found in the eastern South Island. However, both groups have overlapping centres of diversity, particularly in NW Nelson.     

Lake construction has facilitated calanoid copepod invasions in New Zealand

Aim We tested the hypothesis that construction of lakes and ponds has facilitated both inter‐ and intracontinental invasions of calanoid copepod species. Location North Island, New Zealand. Methods We sampled both natural and constructed lakes, ponds and reservoirs for calanoid copepods in the North Island, New Zealand. Species records were supplemented by examining historically collected samples and literature review. Distributions of non‐indigenous calanoid copepod species were compared between constructed and natural waters. Species distributions of native species were compared with the basement terranes (microplates) of the North Island to determine if they possess ‘natural ranges’, and to assess whether construction of new water bodies had altered these distributions. Results Ten calanoid copepod species have been recorded. At least four, and possibly five, of these species are non‐indigenous and were restricted to constructed water bodies. Occurrences in constructed water bodies were not restricted to dammed valleys, but also included ponds constructed on farms, ornamental ponds, disused quarries and retired mines. Four Boeckella species had distributions in natural waters closely related to the North Island basement terranes, and therefore possess ‘natural ranges’ on the island. One species, Boeckella propinqua, was found in natural lakes over a small geographical range only, but has spread with construction of new water bodies to now be widely distributed over the island. Main conclusions Construction of lakes and ponds has facilitated the invasion of calanoid copepod species at both inter‐ and intracontinental scales. Our findings suggest that resident native calanoid copepod species may reduce the risk of invasion to natural water bodies, as similar‐sized species are commonly unable to co‐occur. Spread of the non‐indigenous representatives from constructed into natural waters is inevitable, with established populations providing local propagule supplies for regular introductions.     

Predictive modelling of freshwater fish as a biomonitoring tool in New Zealand

SUMMARY 1. A challenge has been issued to ecologists to find quantitative ecological relationships that have predictive power. A predictive approach has been successful when applied to biomonitoring using stream invertebrates with the River Invertebrate Prediction and Classification System (RIVPACS). This approach, to our knowledge, has not been applied to freshwater fish assemblages.
2. This paper describes the initial results of the application of a regional predictive model of freshwater fish occurrence using 200 reference sites sampled in the Manawatu–Wanganui region of New Zealand over late summer/autumn 2000. In brief (i) sites were classified into biotic groups (ii) the physical and chemical characteristics that best describe variation among these groups were determined and (iii) the relationship between these environmental variables and fish communities was used to predict the fauna expected at a site.
3. Reference sites clustered into six groups based on fish density and community composition. Using 14 physical variables least influenced by human activities, a discriminant model allocated 70% of sites to the correct biological classification group. The variables that best separated the site groups were mainly large-scale variables including altitude, distance from the coast, lotic ecoregion and map co-ordinates.
4. The model was further validated by randomly removing 20% of the sites, rebuilding the model and then determining the number of removed sites correctly allocated to their original biotic groups using environmental variables. Using this process 67% of the removed sites were correctly reassigned to the six predetermined groups.
5. A further 30 sites were used to determine the ability of the model to detect anthropogenic impact. The observed over expected taxa ( O / E ) ratios were significantly lower than the reference site O / E ratios, indicating a response of the fish assemblages to the known stressors.     

Evidence for female-biased juvenile dispersal in corophiid amphipods from a New Zealand estuary

This study examined the distribution and dispersal of corophiid amphipods (Paracorophium spp.) in a temperate New Zealand estuary. Individuals in the sediment (resident population) and those caught in bed-load (local-scale movement) and suspended-load (larger-scale movement) were counted, measured, and sexed, during two tidal cycles at 4-6 week intervals spanning 13 months. Gravid females and juveniles were present in the resident population on all sample dates suggesting near continuous reproduction. Juveniles (< 2.2 mm body length) accounted for 49.8% of individuals in the sediment, compared to 65.4% of those caught in the bed-load and suspended-load traps. For the majority of sample dates, there was a net export of juveniles from the estuary. The total number of juveniles captured in suspended-load traps was significantly greater during the ebb tide relative to the flood tide (n = 541 versus 256), whereas no significant differences were found for adults. Similarly, numbers in the bed-load traps were significantly greater for juveniles during the ebb versus the flood tide (n = 900 versus 484), and also for adult females (n = 180 versus 86). Juvenile sex ratios were female biased in the sediment (9.8:1) and in suspended-load traps (7.6:1) and both were significantly more female-biased than that recorded for juveniles caught in bed-load traps (5.8:1). By contrast, there was a significantly lower proportion of adult females to adult males found in bed-load traps (1.7:1) and in suspended-load traps (0.98:1) compared to the resident population in the sediment (3.6:1). The mean size of juvenile females caught on a flood tide was significantly larger compared to those on the ebb tide, yet juvenile males were not significantly different, suggesting that smaller females were not returning on the flood tide. We suggest that female-biased juvenile dispersal for estuarine Paracorophium spp. lowers the risk of inbreeding and reduces competition. This may have evolved in response to a polygamous breeding system with little or no social organisation where a female produces more female offspring to maximise her inclusive fitness.     

Native vegetation structure,landscape features and climate shape non-native plant richness and cover in New Zealand native shrublands

Aim

Studies investigating the determinants of plant invasions rarely examine multiple factors and often only focus on the role played by native plant species richness. By contrast, we explored how vegetation structure, landscape features and climate shape non-native plant invasions across New Zealand in mānuka and kānuka shrublands.

Location

New Zealand.

Method

We based our analysis on 247 permanent 20 × 20-m plots distributed across New Zealand surveyed between 2009 and 2014. We calculated native plant species richness and cumulative cover at ground, understorey and canopy tiers. We examined non-native species richness and mean species ground cover in relation to vegetation structure (native richness and cumulative cover), landscape features (proportion of adjacent anthropogenic land cover, distance to nearest road or river) and climate. We used generalized additive models (GAM) to assess which variables had greatest importance in determining non-native richness and mean ground cover and whether these variables had a similar effect on native species in the ground tier.

Results

A positive relationship between native and non-native plant species richness was not due to their similar responses to the variables examined in this study. Higher native canopy richness resulted in lower non-native richness and mean ground cover, whereas higher native ground richness was associated with higher native canopy richness. Non-native richness and mean ground cover increased with the proportion of adjacent anthropogenic land cover, whereas for native richness and mean ground cover, this relationship was negative. Non-native richness increased in drier areas, while native richness was more influenced by temperature.

Main Conclusions

Adjacent anthropogenic land cover seems to not only facilitate non-native species arrival by being a source of propagules but also aids their establishment as a result of fragmentation. Our results highlight the importance of examining both cover and richness in different vegetation tiers to better understand non-native plant invasions.     

Divide to conquer: a complex pattern of biodiversity depicted by vertebrate components in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest

The identification of northern and southern components in different vertebrate species led researchers to accept a two‐component hypothesis for the Brazilian Atlantic forest (BAF). Nevertheless, neither a formal proposal nor a meta‐analysis to confirm this coincidence was ever made. Our main objective here was therefore to systematically test in how many vertebrate components the BAF could be divided by analysing existing empirical data. We used two approaches: (1) mapping and comparing the proposed areas of vertebrate endemism in the BAF and (2) analysing studies mentioning spatial subdivisions in distinct forest‐dependent vertebrates within the biome, by the use of panbiogeography. The four large‐scale endemism area components together with the six small‐scale panbiogeographical ones allowed the definition of three BAF greater regions, subdivided into nine vertebrate components, latitudinally and longitudinally organized. Empirical time estimates of the diversification events within the BAF were also reviewed. Diversification of these vertebrates occurred not only in the Pleistocene but also throughout the Miocene. Our results confirm the BAF's complex history, both in space and time. We propose that future research should be small‐scale and focused in the vertebrate components identified herein. Given the BAF's heterogeneity, studying via sections will be much more useful in identifying the BAF's historical biogeography. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ??, ??–??.     

Panbiogeography: Its origin,metamorphosis and decline

From the viewpoint of 2007, one can trace the history of an interesting and contentious trend in biogeography and evolution that began with Croizat’s concept of panbiogeography in 1958. After a quiescent period of about 16 years, some young biologists in New York and in New Zealand read Croizat’s books and became enthusiastic supporters of his ideas. In New York, in the early 1970s, panbiogeography was combined with a part of Hennig’s phylogenetic method to create vicariance biogeography. In 1986, the name of the latter was changed to cladistic biogeography. In the meantime, Croizat’s followers in New Zealand sought to maintain panbiogeography in its original form without reference to phylogeny. This idea reached its peak of popularity in 1989–1990 and then began to fade. In comparison, cladistic biogeography became much more widespread, especially when its followers began publishing laudatory books and papers. Its decline became noticeable after the turn of the century as the dispersal counterrevolution began to have its effect. It served a useful purpose by engaging the interest of young biologists who otherwise may not have become aware of biogeography.     

Tolerance defects in New Zealand Black and New Zealand Black X New Zealand White F1 mice

The susceptibility of autoimmune NZB and (NZB X NZW)F1 mice to the induction of tolerance by monomeric BSA was compared with several normal mouse strains. Unresponsiveness in T and B lymphocyte compartments was probed by challenging with DNP8BSA and measuring anti-DNP and anti-BSA antibodies separately. Tolerance induced by monomeric BSA was carrier specific, and there was no evidence of epitope-specific suppression. Normal NZW, NFS, and B10.D2 mice were easily rendered tolerant with monomeric BSA and did not produce anti-DNP or anti-BSA antibodies after challenge with DNP8BSA. By contrast, the lack of anti-DNP antibody response in similarly treated NZB mice was dependent on the dose of monomeric BSA, indicating that the helper T cells were partially resistant to tolerance induction. NZB mice treated with a high dose of monomeric BSA produced anti-BSA, but not anti-DNP, antibodies after immunization. Thus, the anti-carrier B cells in NZB mice may have been primed by monomeric BSA. The presence of the xid gene on the NZB background rendered the mice susceptible to induction of tolerance, suggesting that the tolerance defect in NZB mice involves the B cell compartment. This abnormal antibody response was a dominant trait: (NZB X NFS)F1 and (NZB X B10.D2)F1 mice had the same characteristics as NZB mice. These F1 hybrids do not develop autoimmune disease, indicating that resistance to experimental tolerance induction expressed at a B cell level may not be sufficient for disease development. In contrast to NZB and other NZB F1 hybrids, (NZB X NZW)F1 hybrids treated with monomeric BSA and challenged with DNP8BSA responded to both DNP and BSA. The contribution of a B cell defect to the tolerance abnormality of (NZB X NZW)F1 mice was examined by analyzing the effect of the xid gene on the progeny of (NZB.xid X NZW)F1 mice. Unlike the effect of the xid gene on NZB mice, both phenotypically normal heterozygous female and phenotypically xid hemizygous male mice produced anti-DNP and anti-BSA antibodies after tolerance induction and immunization, demonstrating that a major helper T cell abnormality was present in (NZB X NZW)F1 mice. The (NZW X B10.D2)F1 hybrid was rendered tolerant by this procedure, indicating that the helper T cell defect (NZB X NZW)F1 mice may have resulted from gene complementation with the NZB mice contributing partial resistance of T helper cells to tolerance induction.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Biological disjunction along the West Caledonian fault,New Caledonia: a synthesis of molecular phylogenetics and panbiogeography

This paper documents a newly discovered pattern of biological disjunction between NW and SE New Caledonia. The disjunction occurs in 87 (mapped) taxa, including plants, moths and lizards, and correlates spatially with the West Caledonian fault. This fault is controversial; some geologists interpret it as a major structure, others deny that it exists. It may have undergone 150–200 km of lateral movement and it is suggested that this has caused the biological disjunction by pulling populations apart. The disjunction matches similar dextral disjunctions of taxa along transform faults in New Zealand, New Guinea, California and Indonesia. Major biogeographic patterns – whether centres of diversity, boundaries of allopatric taxa or disjunctions – all include taxa with many different degrees of differentiation. Studies using a clock model of evolution will therefore interpret a biogeographic pattern as the result of many disparate events. However, this line of reasoning reaches the untenable conclusion that biogeographic patterns, including normal allopatry, are always caused by chance dispersal, never by vicariance. A more productive approach, avoiding the pitfalls of a fossil‐based molecular clock, involves a close examination of molecular clades, comparative biogeography and tectonics. The New Caledonia example documented here shows that this can lead to novel, testable predictions. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 158 , 470–488.     

Panbiogeography and rails of the genus Gallirallus

Abstract

An investigation of flightlessness in the Rallidae led me to question the theories of Olson (1973); that all rails in the genus Gallirallus were distributed over their present range by recent flighted dispersal; and that flightlessness is a recent process conferred by the paedomorphic process neoteny. The current distribution of some members of Gallirallus (Olson 1973a) are interpreted using the panbiogeographic method of Croizat (1958, 1958a). This method indicates that the distribution of some rails is similar to other biota. I suggest the group may be ancient, and its distribution the result of vicariism. Consequently, the evolution of flightless morphology need not be fast, and the flightless rails on different land masses could be the result of flightless radiations.     

Hello New Zealand

Islands of the Pacific Ocean have long fascinated evolutionists. Oceanic islands, generally the products of volcanic activity, provide natural experiments as biological populations are well delimited and the age of islands can be determined using radiometric dating. 'Continental islands', including New Caledonia and New Zealand, provide equally valuable opportunities for evolutionary study. For students of New Zealand biogeography, the peculiar composition of the biota coupled with a limited interpretation of geology has resulted in the widespread acceptance that the flora and fauna is primarily ancient and of vicariant Gondwanan origin. There is increasing evidence from molecular data that much of this biodiversity is the product of evolution following relatively recent colonization. Such data have prompted biologists to consider geological information on New Zealand in more detail. At the heart of the issue is the question of whether modern New Zealand has a terrestrial link through time with the continent Zealandia that split from Gondwanaland some 80 Ma. Zealandia, which includes New Caledonia, Lord Howe Island and several of the subantarctic islands, is now largely submerged, and New Zealand's present terrestrial existence is the product of tectonic activity initiated around 26 Ma. We argue that for the purposes of biogeographical interpretation, New Zealand can be treated as an oceanic island.     

Inhibition of CETP activity by torcetrapib reduces susceptibility to diet-induced atherosclerosis in New Zealand White rabbits

Cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors increase high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) in animals and humans, but whether CETP inhibition will be antiatherogenic is still uncertain. We tested the CETP inhibitor torcetrapib in rabbits fed an atherogenic diet at a dose sufficient to increase HDL-C by at least 3-fold (207 +/- 32 vs. 57 +/- 6 mg/dl in controls at 16 weeks). CETP activity was inhibited by 70-80% throughout the study. Non-HDL-C increased in both groups, but there was no difference apparent by the study's end. At 16 weeks, aortic atherosclerosis was 60% lower in torcetrapib-treated animals (16.4 +/- 3.4% vs. 39.8 +/- 5.4% in controls) and aortic cholesterol content was reduced proportionally. Sera from a separate group of rabbits administered torcetrapib effluxed 48% more cholesterol from Fu5AH cells than did sera from control animals, possibly explaining the reduced aortic cholesterol content. Regression analyses indicated that lesion area in the torcetrapib-treated group was strongly correlated with the ratio of total plasma cholesterol to HDL-C but not with changes in other lipid or lipoprotein levels. CETP inhibition with torcetrapib retards atherosclerosis in rabbits, and the reduced lesion area is associated with increased levels of HDL-C.     

Panbiogeography of New Caledonia: a response to Heads (2008)

The definition of areas of endemism is one of the most important steps for historical biogeography. Here I review the dataset used by Heads (Journal of Biogeography, 2008, 35 , 2153–2175) for his panbiogeographical analysis of the New Caledonian biota. I highlight that some of the distribution data appear dubious (some localities should have been included while some others should have been deleted) when compared with current databases. In addition, some conclusions are not supported by the data themselves.     

New Zealand machair vegetation

Abstract. Machair vegetation is reported for the first time from New Zealand. The habitat is similar to that of British machairs in climate, topography and generally in soil. pH and CaCO₃ content are much lower through most of the sequence, though this difference may partly reflect the greater disturbance of British machair. Sea machair is present, predominantly comprising native species. This grades into machair proper, which contains many species found also in British machair. The machair includes Ammophila-occupied hillocks, a feature typical of British machair. Machair marsh is also present.     

Panbiogeography and the public

Abstract

Progress is reported on the systematics and biogeography of some small land snails in Australasia. Observed patterns of dispersal and massings of taxa appear to support basic concepts in panbiogeographic methodology. The role of the amateur in science is related to the use of computers, curatorial systems, and the current political environment for science.     

The endemic plant families and the palms of New Caledonia: a biogeographical analysis

This paper provides a panbiogeographical analysis of the endemic plant families and the palms of New Caledonia. There are three endemic plant families in New Caledonia and several genera that were previously recognized as endemic families. Of these taxa, some are sister to widespread Northern Hemisphere or global groups (Canacomyrica, Austrotaxus, Amborella). The others belong to trans‐Indian Ocean groups (Strasburgeria), trans‐tropical Pacific groups (Oncotheca) or Tasman Sea/Coral Sea groups (Phelline, Paracryphia) that are sister to widespread Northern Hemisphere or global groups. In palms, the four clades show allopatric regional connections in, respectively: (1) western Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand; (2) Vanuatu/Fiji and the southern Ryukyu Islands near Taiwan; (3) the western Tasman/Coral Sea (eastern Australia, New Guinea and the Solomon Islands); and (4) the eastern Tasman/Coral Sea (Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, New Zealand, Vanuatu, Fiji and the Solomon Islands). The four clades thus belong to different centres of endemism that overlap in New Caledonia. The patterns are attributed not to chance dispersal and adaptive radiation but to the different histories of the eight terranes that fused to produce modern New Caledonia. Trans‐tropical Pacific connections can be related to the Cretaceous igneous plateaus that formed in the central Pacific and were carried, with plate movement, west to the Solomon Islands and New Zealand, and east to Colombia and the Caribbean.