Calanoid copepod biogeography in New Zealand

The distribution of four calanoid copepod species of Boeckella in New Zealand are mapped and described. An explanation of their distribution patterns based on panbiogeographic methods is compared to an explanation based on dispersalist concepts. The panbiogeographic explanation is simpler, and is consistent with explanation of distribution patterns among other genera of plants, invertebrates, amphibians and birds. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Historical biogeography: Geography as evolution,evolution as geography

Abstract

Despite a number of advances in method in recent years, biogeography remains a field with a poorly developed philosophical core. As a result, its historical and ecological sides remain as isolated from one another as ever. In this essay I argue that a more unified approach to biogeographic studies will become possible only when workers realise that it is necessary to reject absolute space, “geography as handmaiden” approaches to distribution problems in favour of structuralist models compatible with both probabilistic spatial interaction and deterministic phylogenetic kinds of thinking. Pros and cons of regionalist, vicariance, and panbiogeographic approaches are weighed in this regard; it is shown that the primary objections of the latter schools to the approach of the former are vitiated when one dwells on second-order, rather than first-order, interpretations of regional faunal structure. This approach makes it possible to construct joint taxonomic/spatial models conducive to pattern analysis; the latter permits the genesis of hypotheses that can be tested through independently conceived theories of process (such as vicariance). An example of the kind of pattern study envisioned, involving generalised track depiction, is briefly described. A suggested cycle of research is thus laid out in which systematic revision becomes a function of a joint “natural” spatial and phylogenetic/historical approach to the subject.     

Biogeographic area relationships in southern New Zealand: a cladistic analysis of Lepidoptera distributions

ABSTRACT. Recently, attention has been directed toward the application of cladistic techniques to reconstruct the history of areas from species distribution data. In this study, hypotheses of area relationships for southern New Zealand are generated from lepidopteran distribution data analysed at two taxonomic levels. Data are shown to possess cladistic structure and area relationships presented here are consistent with the geological history of the southern region of New Zealand. Our results suggest a recolonization of inland lowland regions from the south following a period of extinction during the early Pliocene. Analysis of selected data including only flightless or locally endemic species resulted in little resolution of area relationships but topologies were significantly congruent with a total species dataset. Hypotheses generated from this study are open to testing with congruence analysis using independent species phylogenies.     

The biogeography of three Boeckella species (Copepoda: Calanoida) in New Zealand

The New Zealand distributions of three species of Boeckella (Copepoda, Calanoida), B. triarticulata, B. dilatata and B. hamata are mapped. B. triarticulata is primarily a pond dweller but is also found in reservoirs and shallow lakes. B. dilatata is mainly found in the deeper glacial lakes and ponds in the central region of the South Island and B. hamata has a more widespread distribution in lakes and ponds in the South Island and lower half of the North Island. Differences in temperature optima, food requirements and dispersal ability among the three Boeckella species are related to vicariant events to explain their distribution in New Zealand.     

Moss biogeography in the Tasman Sea region

Abstract

Panbiogeographic track analysis is applied to the distribution of several groups of mosses which occur in the New Zealand region. The analysis highlights areas of biogeographic interest (nodes) in the New Zealand region as follows: 1. New Guinea, 2. New Caledonia, 3. New South Wales/Queensland border in Australia, 4. northern New Zealand, 5. Rapa Island, 6. subantarctic New Zealand.

New Zealand is connected to these nodes by the following standard tracks: 1. New Guinea—New South Wales/Queensland border—Tasmania—subantarctic New Zealand, 2. New Guinea—New Caledonia—New Zealand—subantarctic New Zealand, 3. a central Tasman Sea transversal track; New South Wales/Queensland border—New Caledonia. Rapa Island is connected to the Tasman region by northern New Zealand and New Caledonia.     

Restructuring of Lepidoptera communities by introduced Vespula wasps in a New Zealand beech forest

Introduced social wasps (Vespula vulgaris) reach high densities in some New Zealand beech forests, because honeydew provides an abundant high-energy food source. We manipulated wasp density to estimate an “ecological damage threshold” for large, free-living Lepidoptera larvae. There will be a continuum of ecological damage thresholds for wasp density depending on the prey species or habitat. Experimentally placed small caterpillars had a significantly higher survival rate than large caterpillars, and the survival rate of both groups decreased with increasing wasp density. Spring-occurring caterpillars have a probability of surviving of 0.90–0.95, assuming wasps are the only source of mortality. However, at the peak of the wasp season we predict caterpillars would have virtually no chance (probability of 10⁻⁷⁸ to 10⁻⁴⁰) of surviving to adults. Wasp abundance must be reduced by at least 88% to conserve the more vulnerable species of free-living caterpillars at wasp densities similar to those observed in our study sites. This equates to a damage threshold of 2.7 wasps per Malaise trap per day. It was exceeded for about 5 months of the year in non-poisoned sites. There are currently no biological or chemical control techniques available in New Zealand that will reduce wasp abundance below this damage threshold throughout the year. Our models show that most Lepidoptera with spring caterpillars will be able to persist, but species with caterpillars occurring in the peak wasp season will be eliminated. Received: 5 January 1998 / Accepted: 10 February 1999     

New Zealand tectonostratigraphic terranes and panbiogeography

Abstract

Tectonostratigraphic terranes of New Zealand, grouped for purposes of the present discussion into six groups, are briefly reviewed as to their role in the biogeographic evolution of the present day biota of New Zealand. Of all the terranes so far recognised, only the Torlesse (Rakaia) terrane is thought to have originated outside the New Zealand region; of the various models proposed to explain its origin and emplacement, only that by McKinnon (1983) would allow it to have acted as a “raft” that could have transported a biota en masse. The former existence of a “lost continent” (Pacifica), suggested as apossible source for Torlesse sediments, is regarded as improbable. The long time (at least 140 Ma, and probably 190 Ma) since terrane accretion, and the extreme degree of geological (and geographical) complexity and change that New Zealand has undergone since accretion, make it most improbable that the present day distribution of plants and animals among the terranes reflects the original distribution of their ancestors.     

Arthropoda of the subantarctic islands of New Zealand

Ischyroplectron isolatum (Hutton) is redescribed from the Bounty Islands, south‐east of New Zealand. The relationships of the subantarctic Orthoptera are discussed. A key is given to the four genera of Rhaphidophoridae.     

Natural mortality of currant clearwing,Synanthedon salmachus (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae), in New Zealand

Abstract

In a wide-ranging survey of 11 blackcurrant blocks, mortality of currant clearwing, Synanthedon salmachus (L.), was found to range from 1.3% to 9.7% for larvae and from 5.3% to 23.0% for pupae. At least 51% of the mortality was caused by the fungal pathogens Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces farinosus, and Verticillium lecanii. One unidentified predatory carabid larvae was collected, and two parasites—Xanthocryptus novozealandicus and Diadegma sp.—were reared from clearwing larvae.     

Colonization of and radiation in South America by butterflies in the subtribe Phyciodina (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

The historical biogeography of insects in South America is largely unknown, as dated phylogenies have not been available for most groups. We have studied the phylogenetic relationships and historical biogeography of a subtribe of butterflies, Phyciodina in the family Nymphalidae, based on one mitochondrial gene (COI) and two nuclear gene regions (EF-1alpha and wingless). The subtribe comprises 89 species mainly found in tropical South America, with a few species in North America and the Greater Antilles. We find that the enigmatic genus Antillea is sister to the rest of Phyciodina, and suggest that it should be included in the subtribe. Several genera are found to be polyphyletic or nested within another genus, and are proposed to be synonymised. These are Dagon, Castilia, Telenassa and Janatella, which we propose should be synonymised with Eresia. Brazilian "Ortilia" form an independent lineage and require a new genus name. The diversification of Phyciodina has probably taken place over the past about 34 MYA. The ancestral phyciodine colonised South America from North America through a possible landspan that connected the Greater Antilles to South America about 34MYA. A vicariance event left the ancestral Antillea on the Greater Antilles, while the ancestral 0e on South America colonised the Guyanan Shield and soon after the Brazilian Shield. We hypothesise that the Brazilian Shield was an important area for the diversification of Phyciodina. From there, the ancestor of Anthanassa, Eresia and Tegosa colonised NW South America, where especially Eresia diversified in concert with the rising of the Andes beginning about 20 MYA. Central America was colonised from NW South America about 15 MYA by the ancestors of Anthanassa and Phyciodes. Our study is the first to use a dated phylogeny to study the historical biogeography of a group of South American species of butterflies.     

New record genus Thylacosceloides Sinev (Lepidoptera:Stathmopodidae) in China

The genus Thylacosceloides Sinev, 1988 is recorded for the first time in China, with T. miniata Sinev, 1988 described as new to this country. Images of adult, venation and genitalia are provided.     

Taxonomy, phylogeny, and biogeogràphy of the genus Oreobolus R.Br. (Cyperaceae), with comments on the biogeography of the South Pacific continents

SEBERG, O., 1988. Taxonomy, phylogeny, and biogeogràphy of the genus Oreobolus R.Br. (Cyperaceae), with comments on the biogeogràphy of the South Pacific continents. The genus Oreobolus R.Br. (Cyperaceae) is revised. Fourteen species and three subspecies are recognized; two subspecies are described as new, O. obtusangulus subsp. unispicus and O. oxycarpus subsp. brownii; and a new subspecies combination is made, O. pumilio subsp. clemensiae. Comments are given on the classiciation and choice of phylogenetic and biogeographic methods. The sister-group of the genera Oreobolus and Schoenoides (which has recently been segregated from Oreobolus) is a subset of Costularia subgenus Costularia. Oreobolus is hypothesized to be monophyletic, and a phylogenetic hypothesis, based on a parsimony method, is presented. The scale-like tepals of Oreobolus are hypothesized to be apomorphic. Current vicariance biogeographic hypotheses on the relationships of the South Pacific continents are shown to be premature. Brief accounts are given on nomenclature, aspects of morphology, chromosome numbers, geographical distribution, and ecology.     

Sympatric cryptic species in New Zealand Onychophora

Allozyme electrophoresis was used to examine genetic diversity within live-bearing Peripatopsid Onychophora from the North Island of New Zealand. Specimens of two previously described morpho-species that differ in leg number (Peripatoides suteri and P. novaezealandiae) were found to be genetically diverse. P. suteri showed little intraspecific genetic variation but were very distinct from specimens assignable to P. novaezealandiae. Within P. novaezealandiae five genetically differentiated species were identified although none showed any consistent morphological differentiation, thus P. novaezealandiae (Hutton) is a species complex. All of these species occur in sympatry or parapatry (in one instance) with other cryptic species of the P. novaezealandiae group or with P. suteri. Four new species are described on the basis of this genetic evidence, they are P. morgani, P. aurorbis, P. kawekaensis and P. sympatrica. Other genotypes encountered indicate further cryptic species remain unrecognized. Among the North Island species, P. suteri and P. aurorbis sp. nov. are both more closely related to undescribed species from the South Island than to others examined from the North Island. P. sympatrica sp. nov. exists in sympatry with at least three other species in different parts of its range. The complexity of relationships and distributions probably arose through the interaction of low vagility in peripatus and the active geophysical history of the region. How these cryptic species persist in sympatry is not known but may be linked to differences in ecology not evident in their morphology, and/or may indicate recent dispersal from allopatry.     

Typhlocybinae of New Zealand (Homoptera: Cicadellidae)

Two tribes of the subfamily Typhlocybinae are represented in New Zealand, as follows. Erythroneurini: the cosmopolitan genus Zygina is represented by 4 endemic species—toetoe, ramsayi n.sp., dumbletoni, and agni n.sp.—plus zealandica, which occurs in Australia also. Typhlocybini: Typhlocyba froggatti, T. lethierryi, Ribautiana tenerrima, Eupteryx melissae, Kybos smaragdula, and K. betulicola are introduced Northern Hemisphere elements; Matatua montivaga n.gen.&sp. is endemic; M. maorica (formerly Dikraneura maorica), also endemic, is of uncertain identity in the absence of male specimens. Keys are given for the separation of all taxa, the genera and species are described, and all species except Matatua maorica are figured.     

Evolution of arboreal tunnelling by larvae of Aenetus (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae)

Abstract

Aspects of larval feeding and tunnelling were described for seven species of the wood-boring genus Aenetus. The species were studied in Australia, New Caledonia, and New Zealand. A sequential pattern of larval feeding involving transfer from a fungal based diet to callus tissue in live trees, previously known for A. virescens, was confirmed for A. cohici and inferred for A. dulcis and A. paradiseus. A specialised “transfer” morph linking the two feeding stages in A. virescens was also confirmed for A. cohici and two unidentified species. The wood-boring habit involved entry into the host above ground level and the construction of a tunnel which extends into and then down the stem. Tunnels were often located on the lower surface of leaning branches or stems. Tunnel entrances were open to the host surface, but overlain by a silk- /frass web. Bark and underlying tissue were removed from around the tunnel entrance and a callus growth resulted, which the larva consumed. The evolutionary history of arboreal tunnelling in the Hepialidae was investigated using biogeographic analysis of generic distribution. It is argued that evolution and variation in arboreal tunnelling resulted from specialised recombinations of generalised ancestral characters. It is suggested that the study of arboreal tunnelling can provide a source of useful characters for systematic analysis of phylogenetic relationships within Aenetus. The potential systematic value of tunnel characters is illustrated for A. virescens.     

Panbiogeography and conservation science in New Zealand

Abstract

New Zealand’s official conservation science framework, the Protected Natural Areas Programme (PNA), is evaluated in relation to current biogeographic/systematic methods and principles with reference to philosophy, taxonomy, information content, and historical geological/biological relations. The PNA Programme and its parent International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) framework is based on a phenetic system of classification that does not reflect process (phylogenetic) characters of ecological systems. The PNA philosophy of conservation science is shown to be essentialist, rooted in traditional medieval Western metaphysics, and out of step with current developments in biogeography, systematics, and ecology. Panbiogeography is an appropriate global perspective for developing a conservation science because it meets the requirements of homology, monophyly, increased information content, and empirical testability whereas the PNA programme does not. Establishment of a Panbiogeographic Track Atlas is proposed as a suitable conservation framework for historical ecology and biogeography. The atlas could provide an empirical natural resource inventory to identify priority areas for conservation at an economically acceptable cost compared to the PNA Programme. Application of cladistic techniques to ecological and biogeographic patterns in relation to the Atlas can provide aphylogenetically sound hierarchical classification for conservation science. The potential benefits of the panbiogeographic approach for conservation education and tourism are discussed.     

Taxonomy, evolutionary biology and biogeography of South West European Polyommatus coridon (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Genetic relationships among 15 South West European populations of Polyommatus coridon were evaluated by the electrophoretic study of 16 gene-enzyme systems. Nei's indexes I and D and other statistics demonstrated that two different species are involved, identifiable as Polyommatus coridon (six populations from Southern France and Italy) and Polyommatus caelestissimus (nine populations from Spain), respectively. The Spanish complex is characterized by a different genetic balance, involving much higher degree of interdemic differentiation. It also differs from populations from France and Italy on one alternative locus showing complete fixation. Species-level distinction is independent of haploid chromosome numbers that vary from 87 to 88 in both groups. An evaluation of selective pressures as operated by climatic factors was attempted. The Pleistocene radiation of this group and consequent patterns of the gene flow were reconstructed using spatial autocorrelation analysis.     

The effects of island area, isolation and source population size on the presence of the grayling butterfly Hipparchia semele (L.) (Lepidoptera: Satyrinae) on British and Irish offshore islands

Records of Hipparchia semele on British and Irish islands have been modelled against island area, isolation (sea and land distance) and the size of the nearest potential source populations. All three variables have been found to contribute significantly to the presence or absence of H. semele on the islands. Isolation is a more significant predictor than island area. This result differs from the multiple species case where area was found to be a more important influence than isolation. Records on islands are also shown to depend on the size of populations at the nearest sources; this underpins the relationships identified for the multiple species case, first, between the number of species on islands and at nearest sources and, second, between the incidence of species on islands and at nearest sources. There are clear indications that smaller islands may become increasingly marginalized for H.semele; with ongoing habitat loss, because isolation increases and source populations become sparser, the probability of H. semele recolonizing islands also decreases.