Assessing the utility of conserving evolutionary history

It is often claimed that conserving evolutionary history is more efficient than species‐based approaches for capturing the attributes of biodiversity that benefit people. This claim underpins academic analyses and recommendations about the distribution and prioritization of species and areas for conservation, but evolutionary history is rarely considered in practical conservation activities. One impediment to implementation is that arguments related to the human‐centric benefits of evolutionary history are often vague and the underlying mechanisms poorly explored. Herein we identify the arguments linking the prioritization of evolutionary history with benefits to people, and for each we explicate the purported mechanism, and evaluate its theoretical and empirical support. We find that, even after 25 years of academic research, the strength of evidence linking evolutionary history to human benefits is still fragile. Most – but not all – arguments rely on the assumption that evolutionary history is a useful surrogate for phenotypic diversity. This surrogacy relationship in turn underlies additional arguments, particularly that, by capturing more phenotypic diversity, evolutionary history will preserve greater ecosystem functioning, capture more of the natural variety that humans prefer, and allow the maintenance of future benefits to humans. A surrogate relationship between evolutionary history and phenotypic diversity appears reasonable given theoretical and empirical results, but the strength of this relationship varies greatly. To the extent that evolutionary history captures unmeasured phenotypic diversity, maximizing the representation of evolutionary history should capture variation in species characteristics that are otherwise unknown, supporting some of the existing arguments. However, there is great variation in the strength and availability of evidence for benefits associated with protecting phenotypic diversity. There are many studies finding positive biodiversity–ecosystem functioning relationships, but little work exists on the maintenance of future benefits or the degree to which humans prefer sets of species with high phenotypic diversity or evolutionary history. Although several arguments link the protection of evolutionary history directly with the reduction of extinction rates, and with the production of relatively greater future biodiversity via increased adaptation or diversification, there are few direct tests. Several of these putative benefits have mismatches between the relevant spatial scales for conservation actions and the spatial scales at which benefits to humans are realized. It will be important for future work to fill in some of these gaps through direct tests of the arguments we define here.     

Using a goal programming approach to design and evaluate protected areas for the conservation of multiple dimensions of biodiversity

The decline and loss of biodiversity provoked by human activities have caused ecologists and conservationists to center their attention on the design of conservation priority areas (PAs), focusing mainly on species conservation in terms of richness, rarity and/or vulnerability. However, biodiversity has multiple dimensions, evolutionary processes have recently been labeled the ‘missing component’ of conservation strategies, and increasingly more authors are suggesting that the ecological, evolutionary and historical aspects of biodiversity are key components of conservation planning. In this study we develop a prioritization system to design conservation PAs using the wild terrestrial mammals of the Iberian Peninsula as an example. We aim to contribute to the design of more suitable PAs by integrating ecological components of biodiversity (species richness, vulnerability and rarity), evolutionary aspects (accumulated genetic diversification) and historical information relevant to the study area. After selecting a set of biodiversity indicators, we applied a multi-objective technique (extended goal programming) to construct a combined index, where values in the top 90th percentile were then used to select the PAs. According to our most efficient and satisfactory results, some areas highlighted for their conservation are currently categorized as PAs, however, we found that it would be necessary to reconsider their extent, especially in northern Spain, where the historical aspects of biodiversity (the missing component) are more widely present. The need to determine PAs is unquestionable. However, it should also be a priority to move towards a model of sustainable and fair development.     

Phylogenetic diversity and its conservation in the presence of phylogenetic uncertainty: a case study of cladoceran communities in urban waterbodies

The need to protect and preserve biodiversity is a pressing issue and requires that conservation projects be based on solid foundations. Knowledge of species evolutionary history can serve as a tool to help guide conservation projects on the basis of evolutionary heritage. We used communities of Cladocera (Crustacea, Branchiopoda) in urban waterbodies to identify which sites should be prioritized for phylogenetic diversity conservation. Phylogenetic trees were inferred using DNA sequences from two mitochondrial genes. Furthermore, we also evaluated the consequences of phylogenetic uncertainty for identifying sites for conservation priority. Using results from Bayesian analyses, we considered the effect of uncertainty in the phylogenetic tree on phylogenetic diversity (PD) estimation. When phylogenetic uncertainty was taken into account, the conservation value of individual sites became uncertain and several potential comparisons between sites could not be supported. Consequently prioritization of one site over the other could not be defended in biodiversity conservation projects. Our study highlights the fact that accounting for phylogenetic uncertainty can alter the relative conservation priority of sites, as assessed by their phylogenetic diversity. Therefore, variability in the phylogenetic estimates should be consistently considered and integrated into estimates of phylogenetic diversity and conservation decisions to avoid making suboptimal choices.     

Conservation biology of Malagasy strepsirhines: a phylogenetic approach

The phylogenetic diversity of extant lemurs represents one of the most important but least studied aspects of the conservation biology of primates. The phylogenetic diversity of a species is inversely proportional to the relative number and closeness of its phylogenetic relatives. Phylogenetic diversity can then be used to determine conservation priorities for specific biogeographic regions. Although Malagasy strepsirhines represent the highest phylogenetic diversity among primates at the global level, there are few phylogenetic data on species-specific and regional conservation plans for lemurs in Madagascar. Therefore, in this paper the following questions are addressed for extant lemurs: 1) how does the measure of taxonomic uniqueness used by Mittermeier et al. (1992 Lemurs of Madagascar; Gland, Switzerland: IUCN) equate with an index of phylogenetic diversity, 2) what are the regional conservation priorities based on analyses of phylogenetic diversity in extant lemurs, and 3) what conservation recommendations can be made based on analyses of phylogenetic diversity in lemurs? Taxonomic endemicity standardized weight (TESW) indices of phylogenetic diversity were used to determine the evolutionary component of biodiversity and to prioritize regions for conserving lemur taxa. TESW refers to the standardization of phylogenetic diversity indices for widespread taxa and endemicity of species. The phylogenetic data came from recent genetic studies of Malagasy strepsirhines at the species level. Lemur species were assigned as being either present or absent in six biogeographic regions. TESW indices were combined with data on lemur complementarity and protected areas to assign conservation priorities at the regional level. Although there were no overall differences between taxonomic ranks and phylogenetic rankings, there were significant differences for the top-ranked taxa. The phylogenetic component of lemur diversity is greatest for Daubentonia madagascariensis, Allocebus trichotis, Lepilemur septentrionalis, Indri indri, and Mirza coquereli. Regional conservation priorities are highest for lemurs that range into northeast humid forests and western dry forests. Expansion of existing protected areas in these regions may provide the most rapid method for preserving lemurs. In the long term, new protected areas must be created because there are lemur species that: 1) are not found in existing protected areas, 2) exist only in one or two protected areas, and 3) are still being discovered outside the current network of protected areas. Data on the population dynamics and feeding ecology of phylogenetically important species are needed to ensure that protected areas adequately conserve lemur populations in Madagascar.     

Integrative conservation genetics: Prioritizing populations using climate predictions,adaptive potential and habitat connectivity

Conservation decisions often involve allocation of scarce resources among many areas of need. Various approaches exist to help prioritize species and populations for conservation. Past efforts have often used relatively narrow, one‐dimensional criteria, such as genetic resource value or exposure to threats. What is lacking is a refined, comprehensive prioritization approach including ecological and evolutionary aspects, informed by rich and reliable data. In this issue of Molecular Ecology Resources, Razgour et al. ( 2017 ) present a new prioritization framework that coherently integrates three dimensions of population vulnerability: exposure to change, sensitivity to change and range shift potential. They measure these dimensions for 10 populations of a European bat using a suite of advanced analysis methods that leverage genomic, environmental and occurrence data. Explicitly recognizing and quantifying the multidimensional nature of conservation priorities is a key advance because it enables a nuanced assessment of each population and identification of populations of high concern along all three dimensions. With some caveats and modifications, this framework could be a major step for conservation prioritization and intervention that is proactive and informed by evolutionary principles.     

Species prioritization for monitoring and management in regional multiple species conservation plans

Successful conservation plans are not solely achieved by acquiring optimally designed reserves. Ongoing monitoring and management of the biodiversity in those reserves is an equally important, but often neglected or poorly executed, part of the conservation process. In this paper we address one of the first and most important steps in designing a monitoring program – deciding what to monitor. We present a strategy for prioritizing species for monitoring and management in multispecies conservation plans. We use existing assessments of threatened status, and the degree and spatial and temporal extent of known threats to link the prioritization of species to the overarching goals and objectives of the conservation plan. We consider both broad and localized spatial scales to capture the regional conservation context and the practicalities of local management and monitoring constraints. Spatial scales that are commensurate with available data are selected. We demonstrate the utility of this strategy through application to a set of 85 plants and animals in an established multispecies conservation plan in San Diego County, California, USA. We use the prioritization to identify the most prominent risk factors and the habitats associated with the most threats to species. The protocol highlighted priorities that had not previously been identified and were not necessarily intuitive without systematic application of the criteria; many high‐priority species have received no monitoring attention to date, and lower‐priority species have. We recommend that in the absence of clear focal species, monitoring threats in highly impacted habitats may be a way to circumvent the need to monitor all the targeted species.     

Biodiversity gains from efficient use of private sponsorship for flagship species conservation

To address the global extinction crisis, both efficient use of existing conservation funding and new sources of funding are vital. Private sponsorship of charismatic ‘flagship’ species conservation represents an important source of new funding, but has been criticized as being inefficient. However, the ancillary benefits of privately sponsored flagship species conservation via actions benefiting other species have not been quantified, nor have the benefits of incorporating such sponsorship into objective prioritization protocols. Here, we use a comprehensive dataset of conservation actions for the 700 most threatened species in New Zealand to examine the potential biodiversity gains from national private flagship species sponsorship programmes. We find that private funding for flagship species can clearly result in additional species and phylogenetic diversity conserved, via conservation actions shared with other species. When private flagship species funding is incorporated into a prioritization protocol to preferentially sponsor shared actions, expected gains can be more than doubled. However, these gains are consistently smaller than expected gains in a hypothetical scenario where private funding could be optimally allocated among all threatened species. We recommend integrating private sponsorship of flagship species into objective prioritization protocols to sponsor efficient actions that maximize biodiversity gains, or wherever possible, encouraging private donations for broader biodiversity goals.     

Species Richness and Assemblages in Landscapes of Different Farming Intensity – Time to Revise Conservation Strategies?

Worldwide conservation goals to protect biodiversity emphasize the need to rethink which objectives are most suitable for different landscapes. Comparing two different Swedish farming landscapes, we used survey data on birds and vascular plants to test whether landscapes with large, intensively managed farms had lower richness and diversity of the two taxa than landscapes with less intensively managed small farms, and if they differed in species composition. Landscapes with large intensively managed farms did not have lower richness than smaller low intensively managed farms. The landscape types were also similar in that they had few red listed species, normally targeted in conservation. Differences in species composition demonstrate that by having both types of agricultural landscapes regional diversity is increased, which is seldom captured in the objectives for agro-environmental policies. Thus we argue that focus on species richness or red listed species would miss the actual diversity found in the two landscape types. Biodiversity conservation, especially in production landscapes, would therefore benefit from a hierarchy of local to regional objectives with explicit targets in terms of which aspects of biodiversity to focus on.     

Operationalizing biodiversity for conservation planning

Biodiversity has acquired such a general meaning that people now find it difficult to pin down a precise sense for planning and policy-making aimed at biodiversity conservation. Because biodiversity is rooted in place, the task of conserving biodiversity should target places for conservation action; and because all places contain biodiversity, but not all places can be targeted for action, places have to be prioritized. What is needed for this is a measure of the extent to which biodiversity varies from place to place. We do not need a precise measure of biodiversity to prioritize places. Relative estimates of similarity or difference can be derived using partial measures, or what have come to be called biodiversity surrogates. Biodiversity surrogates are supposed to stand in for general biodiversity in planning applications. We distinguish between true surrogates, those that might truly stand in for general biodiversity, and estimator surrogates, which have true surrogates as their target variable. For example, species richness has traditionally been the estimator surrogate for the true surrogate, species diversity. But species richness does not capture the differences in composition between places; the essence of biodiversity. Another measure, called complementarity, explicitly captures the differences between places as we iterate the process of place prioritization, starting with an initial place. The relative concept of biodiversity built into the definition of complementarity has the level of precision needed to undertake conservation planning.     

Biodiversity hotspots are not congruent with conservation areas in the Gulf of California

As marine systems are threatened by increasing human impacts, mechanisms to maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services are needed. Protecting areas of conservation importance may serve as a proxy for maintaining these functions, while also facilitating efficient use and management of limited resources. Biodiversity hotspots have been used as surrogates for spatial conservation importance; however, as many protected areas have been established opportunistically and under differing criteria, it is unclear how well they actually protect hotspots. We evaluated how well the current protected area network and priority areas selected through previous systematic conservation planning exercises preserve biodiversity hotspots in the Gulf of California, Mexico. We also determined spatial congruence between biodiversity hotspots based on different criteria, which may determine their ability to be used as surrogates for each other. We focus on the Gulf of California because it is a megadiverse system where limited information regarding species diversity and distribution has constrained development of strategies for conservation and management. We developed a species occurrence database and identified biodiversity hotspots using four different criteria: species richness, rarity, endemism, and threatened species. We interpolated species occurrence, while accounting for heterogeneous sampling efforts. We then assessed overlap of hotspots with existing protected areas and priority areas, and between hotspots derived by distinct criteria. We gathered 286,533 occurrence records belonging to 12,105 unique species, including 6388 species identified as rare, 642 as endemic, and 386 as threatened. We found that biodiversity hotspots showed little spatial overlap with areas currently under protection and previously identified priority areas. Our results highlight the importance of distinct spatial areas of biodiversity and suggest that different ecological mechanisms sustain different aspects of diversity and multiple criteria should be used when defining conservation areas.     

Phylogeny,extinction and conservation: embracing uncertainties in a time of urgency

Evolutionary studies have played a fundamental role in our understanding of life, but until recently, they had only a relatively modest involvement in addressing conservation issues. The main goal of the present discussion meeting issue is to offer a platform to present the available methods allowing the integration of phylogenetic and extinction risk data in conservation planning. Here, we identify the main knowledge gaps in biodiversity science, which include incomplete sampling, reconstruction biases in phylogenetic analyses, partly known species distribution ranges, and the difficulty in producing conservation assessments for all known species, not to mention that much of the effective biological diversity remains to be discovered. Given the impact that human activities have on biodiversity and the urgency with which we need to address these issues, imperfect assumptions need to be sanctioned and surrogates used in the race to salvage as much as possible of our natural and evolutionary heritage. We discuss some aspects of the uncertainties found in biodiversity science, such as the ideal surrogates for biodiversity, the gaps in our knowledge and the numerous available phylogenetic diversity-based methods. We also introduce a series of cases studies that demonstrate how evolutionary biology can effectively contribute to biodiversity conservation science.     

Incorporating evolutionary processes into conservation planning using species distribution data: a case study with the western Mediterranean herpetofauna

Aim To incorporate evolutionary processes into conservation planning using species distribution patterns and environmental gradients as surrogates for genetic diversity. Location Western Mediterranean Basin. Methods Distributions of 154 herpetological species were predicted using maximum entropy models, and groups of significantly co‐occurring species (biotic elements) were identified. Environmental gradients were characterized for the complete area and for the area covered by each biotic element, by performing a principal component analysis on the data matrix composed of nine environmental variables. The first two principal component analysis axes were classified into four categories each, and those categories were combined with each other resulting in an environmental classification with 16 categories. To identify priority conservation areas, biotic elements and environmental categories were used as surrogates for the neutral and adaptive components of genetic diversity, respectively. Priority areas for conservation were identified under three scenarios: (1) setting targets for species only; (2) setting targets for species and for each environmental category of the overall area; and (3) setting targets for each species and for each environmental category within each biotic element. Results Nine biotic elements were identified – four for the amphibians and five for the reptiles. Priority areas identified in the three scenarios were similar in terms of amount of area selected, but exhibited low spatial agreement. Main conclusions Prioritization exercises that integrate surrogates for evolutionary processes can deliver spatial priorities that are fairly different to those where only species representation is considered. While new methods are emerging to incorporate molecular data in conservation prioritization, it is unlikely to be enough data for enough taxa for this to be feasible in many regions. We develop an approach using surrogates for both the neutral and adaptive components of genetic diversity that may enhance biodiversity persistence and representation when molecular data are not available or geographically comprehensive.     

Conservation of Afrotropical antelopes: consequences and efficiency of using different site selection methods and diversity criteria

The consequences of different measures of biotic diversity for the selection of priority sites for conservation were investigated using a dataset on Afrotropical antelopes. Site networks were selected using species richness, taxonomic diversity and restricted-range diversity as selection criteria. Restricted-range diversity was the most efficient criterion at representing all the species in the dataset. However when only a few sites could be conserved (insufficient to include all species) restricted-range diversity was relatively poor at representing absolute numbers of species and also taxonomic diversity. Use of unweighted species richness rather than a taxonomically weighted score did not significantly reduce the amount of taxonomic diversity represented. As expected an iterative selection of sites was considerably more efficient at representing all aspects of diversity than selection of the top-scoring sites. However the efficiency of an iterative selection procedure was reduced when some areas were already part of the reserve network. Since none of the criteria for selecting reserves maximizes all aspects of biodiversity under all circumstances, it is necessary to be clear about the objectives of a reserve network when deciding on a method for site selection.     

云南被子植物菊类分支的系统发育多样性及其分布格局

全球气候变化与人为活动等因素导致的生物多样性丧失,引起了全球各界对生物多样性保护的高度关注。传统生物多样性保护主要对物种、特有种、受威胁物种的种类组成及其分布模式开展研究,忽视了进化历史在生物多样性保护中的作用。云南是全球生物多样性热点地区的交汇区,生物多样性的保护历来受到广泛关注,为了更好地探讨云南生物多样性的保护措施,该研究以云南被子植物菊类分支物种为研究对象,基于物种间的演化关系,结合其地理分布,从进化历史的角度探讨物种、特有种、受威胁物种的种类组成及系统发育组成的分布格局,并整合自然保护地的空间分布,识别生物多样性的重点保护区域。结果表明：云南被子植物菊类分支的物种、特有种及受威胁物种的物种密度与系统发育多样性均显著正相关;通过零模型分析发现,由南向北标准化系统发育多样性逐渐降低;云南南部、东南部、西北部是云南被子植物菊类分支的重点保护区域,加强这些区域的保护,将最大化地保护生物多样性的进化历史和进化潜能。由此可见,融合进化历史信息的植物多样性格局分析不仅有助于更加深入地理解植物多样性的形成与演变,也为生物多样性保护策略的制定提供更多的思路。     

The world in a grain of sand: evolutionarily relevant,small‐scale freshwater bioregions on subtropical dune islands

1. Conservation plans are required to safeguard freshwater biodiversity in the face of increasing threats. Traditionally plans have used surrogates for biodiversity that do not account for the evolutionary process, but genetic data in the form of comparative phylogeography can fulfil this role. 2. Comparative phylogeographic analyses of multiple freshwater fish and decapod crustacean species were carried out with specimens from two model systems, namely the sand dune islands of Fraser and North Stradbroke in eastern Australia. 3. Almost all of the species studied from both islands displayed an intraspecific evolutionary split between sides of the island (east/west on North Stradbroke Island, and north/south on Fraser Island), indicating that each side of each island hosts its own distinct community of populations of freshwater animals. 4. The probable process responsible for both of these divergent communities is different source populations for each side of each island. 5. This study shows that biodiversity will not always follow obvious geography and that significant diversity may exist at small scales within multiple species. These evolutionarily relevant units of biodiversity should be incorporated at the beginning of the conservation and resource management planning process.     

The subspecies concept in butterflies: has its application in taxonomy and conservation biology outlived its usefulness?

Subspecies lie at the interface between systematics and population genetics, and represent a unit of biological organization in zoology that is widely used in the disciplines of taxonomy and conservation biology. In this review, we explore the utility of subspecies in relation to their application in systematics and biodiversity conservation, and briefly summarize species concepts and criteria for their diagnosis, particularly from an invertebrate perspective. The subspecies concept was originally conceived as a formal means of documenting geographical variation within species based on morphological characters; however, the utility of subspecies is hampered by inconsistencies by which they are defined conceptually, a lack of objective criteria or properties that serve to delimit their boundaries, and their frequent failure to reflect distinct evolutionary units according to population genetic structure. Moreover, the concept has been applied to populations largely comprising different components of genetic diversity reflecting contrasting evolutionary processes. We recommend that, under the general lineage (unified) species concept, the definition of subspecies be restricted to extant animal groups that comprise evolving populations representing partially isolated lineages of a species that are allopatric, phenotypically distinct, and have at least one fixed diagnosable character state, and that these character differences are (or are assumed to be) correlated with evolutionary independence according to population genetic structure. Phenotypic character types include colour pattern, morphology, and behaviour or ecology. Under these criteria, allopatric subspecies are a type of evolutionarily significant unit within species in that they show both neutral divergence through the effects of genetic drift and adaptive divergence under natural selection, and provide an historical context for identifying biodiversity units for conservation. Conservation of the adaptedness and adaptability of gene pools, however, may require additional approaches. Recent studies of Australian butterflies exemplify these points. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, ?? , ??–??.     

Characterising and predicting benthic biodiversity for conservation planning in deepwater environments

Understanding patterns of biodiversity in deep sea systems is increasingly important because human activities are extending further into these areas. However, obtaining data is difficult, limiting the ability of science to inform management decisions. We have used three different methods of quantifying biodiversity to describe patterns of biodiversity in an area that includes two marine reserves in deep water off southern Australia. We used biological data collected during a recent survey, combined with extensive physical data to model, predict and map three different attributes of biodiversity: distributions of common species, beta diversity and rank abundance distributions (RAD). The distribution of each of eight common species was unique, although all the species respond to a depth-correlated physical gradient. Changes in composition (beta diversity) were large, even between sites with very similar environmental conditions. Composition at any one site was highly uncertain, and the suite of species changed dramatically both across and down slope. In contrast, the distributions of the RAD components of biodiversity (community abundance, richness, and evenness) were relatively smooth across the study area, suggesting that assemblage structure (i.e. the distribution of abundances of species) is limited, irrespective of species composition. Seamounts had similar biodiversity based on metrics of species presence, beta diversity, total abundance, richness and evenness to the adjacent continental slope in the same depth ranges. These analyses suggest that conservation objectives need to clearly identify which aspects of biodiversity are valued, and employ an appropriate suite of methods to address these aspects, to ensure that conservation goals are met.     

The price of conserving avian phylogenetic diversity: a global prioritization approach

The combination of rapid biodiversity loss and limited funds available for conservation represents a major global concern. While there are many approaches for conservation prioritization, few are framed as financial optimization problems. We use recently published avian data to conduct a global analysis of the financial resources required to conserve different quantities of phylogenetic diversity (PD). We introduce a new prioritization metric (ADEPD) that After Downlisting a species gives the Expected Phylogenetic Diversity at some future time. Unlike other metrics, ADEPD considers the benefits to future PD associated with downlisting a species (e.g. moving from Endangered to Vulnerable in the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List). Combining ADEPD scores with data on the financial cost of downlisting different species provides a cost–benefit prioritization approach for conservation. We find that under worst-case spending $3915 can save 1 year of PD, while under optimal spending $1 can preserve over 16.7 years of PD. We find that current conservation spending patterns are only expected to preserve one quarter of the PD that optimal spending could achieve with the same total budget. Maximizing PD is only one approach within the wider goal of biodiversity conservation, but our analysis highlights more generally the danger involved in uninformed spending of limited resources.     

Threatened reef corals of the world

A substantial proportion of the world's living species, including one-third of the reef-building corals, are threatened with extinction and in pressing need of conservation action. In order to reduce biodiversity loss, it is important to consider species' contribution to evolutionary diversity along with their risk of extinction for the purpose of setting conservation priorities. Here I reconstruct the most comprehensive tree of life for the order Scleractinia (1,293 species) that includes all 837 living reef species, and employ a composite measure of phylogenetic distinctiveness and extinction risk to identify the most endangered lineages that would not be given top priority on the basis of risk alone. The preservation of these lineages, not just the threatened species, is vital for safeguarding evolutionary diversity. Tests for phylogeny-associated patterns show that corals facing elevated extinction risk are not clustered on the tree, but species that are susceptible, resistant or resilient to impacts such as bleaching and disease tend to be close relatives. Intensification of these threats or extirpation of the endangered lineages could therefore result in disproportionate pruning of the coral tree of life.     

生物多样性保护的景观规划途径

景观规划设计在生物多样性保护中起着决定性的作用。基于不同的保护哲学,生物多样性保护的景观规划途径主要可分为两种：一是以物种为核心的景观规划途径,另一种是以景观元素为核心和出发点的规划途径。前者首先确定物种,然后根据物种的生态特性来设计景观格局,后者则以各种尺度的景观元素作为保护对象,根据其空间位置和关系设计景观格局。多种空间战略被认为有利于生物多样性的保护,包括保护核心栖息地、建立缓冲区、构筑廊道、增加景观异质性和引入或恢复栖息地。落实这些空间战略必须首先回答选择什么和在什么地方设计上述景观元素的问题。对此,目前尚没有很好的答案。传统的生物保护战略被动地强调现存濒危物种和景观元素的保护,如果将物种运动和生态过程作为一个能动的景观控制过程来对待,我们将会有一种全新的景观规划途径。其中有三个方面的概念对这种新的景观规划途径有启发意义：即景观的空间构型对生态过程的作用,生物进化空间轨迹与景观格局设计及景观阻力与潜在的生态基础设施的设计。景观生态安全格局正是在这些方向上的一个新的探索。