Resource partitioning in sympatric langurs and macaques in tropical rainforests of the central Western Ghats, south India

In a competitive sympatric association, coexisting species may try to reduce interspecific interactions as well as competition for similar resources by several ecological and behavioral practices. We studied resource utilization of three sympatric primate species namely, lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus), bonnet macaques (M. radiata) and Hanuman langurs (Semnopithecus entellus) in a tropical rainforest of the central Western Ghats, south India. We studied resource use, tree-height use, foraging height, substrate use when consuming animal prey and interspecific interactions. The results revealed that across the year, there was very limited niche overlap in diet between each species-pair. Each primate species largely depended on different plant species or different plant parts and phenophases from shared plant species. Primate species used different heights for foraging, and the two macaque species searched different substrates when foraging on animal prey. We also recorded season-wise resource abundance for the resources shared by these three primate species. While there was low dietary overlap during the dry season (a period of relatively low resource abundance), there was high dietary overlap between the two macaque species during the wet season (a period of high resource abundance for the shared resources). We observed only a few interspecific interactions. None of these were agonistic, even during the period of high niche overlap. This suggests that the sympatric primate species in this region are characterized by little or no contest competition. Unlike in some other regions of the Western Ghats, the lack of interspecific feeding competition appears to allow these primates, especially the macaques, to remain sympatric year-round.     

Distribution,Demography, and Conservation of Lion-tailed Macaques (Macaca silenus) in the Anamalai Hills Landscape,Western Ghats,India

The status of the endemic and endangered lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus) has not been properly assessed in several regions of the Western Ghats of southern India. We conducted a study in Parambikulam Forest Reserve in the state of Kerala to determine the distribution, demography, and status of lion-tailed macaques. We laid 5km² grid cells on the map of the study area (644km²) and made four replicated walks in each grid cell using GPS. We gathered data on lion-tailed macaque group locations, demography, and site covariates including trail length, duration of walk, proportion of evergreen forest, height of tallest trees, and human disturbance index. We also performed occupancy modeling using PRESENCE ver. 3.0. We estimated a minimum of 17 groups of macaques in these hills. Low detection and occupancy probabilities indicated a low density of lion-tailed macaques in the study area. Height of the tallest trees correlated positively whereas human disturbance and proportion of evergreen forest correlated negatively with occupancy in grid cells. We also used data from earlier studies carried out in the surrounding Anamalai Tiger Reserve and Nelliyampathy Hills to discuss the conservation status in the large Anamalai Hills Landscape. This landscape harbors an estimated population of 1108 individuals of lion-tailed macaques, which is about one third of the entire estimated wild population of this species. A conservation plan for this landscape could be used as a model for conservation in other regions of the Western Ghats.     

Exploring microbial bioactive molecules from Western Ghats,India

Western Ghats are designated as world heritage sites and global biodiversity hotspots. Microbial diversity in this forest area has been largely neglected and is getting attention since the end of the last millennium. In this review, we have studied and organized various microorganisms from Western Ghats and their diversity, important characteristics and potential biotechnological applications. Microorganisms from Western Ghats have been explored individually for potential bioactive molecules. While most of the microorganisms were analyzed for antimicrobial activities, there have been studies on microbial promotion of plant growth. The microbes analyzed included from aquatics, soil, rhizosphere, phyllosphere and even as endophytes. There have been microorganisms which have shown antioxidant and anti-cancerous activities. There are microorganisms capable of degrading plant wastes and also xenobiotics. Microorganisms capable of producing industrially important enzymes have also been reported. The present review explores largely neglected microbial diversity with respect to their ability to produce potential bioactive biomolecules.     

Landscape ecology and conservation of birds in the Western Ghats, South India

The principle of landscape ecology finds wide application in conservation of biodiversity in fragmented and Man altered landscapes. Protection of carefully chosen habitats, networked by appropriate corridors can considerably enhance local biodiversity, especially outside major protected areas. This paper discusses the landscape ecology approach to the conservation of birds in a south India hill district. By the protection of 5 of the 21 major habitats spread over 18 localities, 76% of the district's avifauna can be conserved and protected.     

Landscape ecology and conservation of birds in the Western Ghats, South India

The principle of landscape ecology finds wide application in conservation of biodiversity in fragmented and Man altered landscapes. Protection of carefully chosen habitats, networked by appropriate corridors can considerably enhance local biodiversity, especially outside major protected areas. This paper discusses the landscape ecology approach to the conservation of birds in a south India hill district. By the protection of 5 of the 21 major habitats spread over 18 localities, 76% of the district's avifauna can be conserved and protected.     

The sacred groves of Western Ghats in India

Then ignoring the pleadings of the king, she wandered into the sacred grove of Kumara. Her mind bewildered by the curse of her Guru, she failed to notice this transgression into an area forbidden to women. No sooner did she enter, than she was transformed into a vine clinging to a tree at the boundary of the grove. Kalidasa in Vikramorvasiyam (c. 300 A.D.)     

A field guide to the caecilians of the Western Ghats, India

Caecilians are legless amphibians quite characteristic of the Western Ghats. Fourteen out of 16 Indian species occur in the Western Ghats and all are endemic. The present paper deals with the biology of caecilians with reference to external morphology and general breeding behaviour. It consolidates information on 26 morphological parameters which are used in caecilian identification. Metric multidimensional scaling of 16 species of caecilians using pair-wise euclidian distances calculated on the basis of 11 important morphometric parameters clearly depicts morphological distances between different species and more so the genera, thereby validating the classification. A field guide has been developed for the identification of caecilians based on a survey made all over the Western Ghats, observation of holotypes at the Natural History Museum, London and review of the literature. The study also reveals the microhabitat requirements of the caecilians. Further, the localities of caecilian distribution in the Western Ghats are mapped. The taxonomy of Indian caecilians is discussed.     

Earthworm diversity at Nilgiri biosphere reserve, Western Ghats, India

Species diversity of earthworms in tropics is less studied compared to those of the temperate regions. Despite the fact that there have been numerous studies on earthworm diversity in the Western Ghats of India, there still exists scope for more earthworm species which are yet to be described. The present work involves a survey of earthworms in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve (NBR)—a part of a biodiversity hot spot of Western Ghats. Despite being a part of the biodiversity hot spot, studies on earthworm diversity at NBR are very limited. Unless an authentic record of earthworm species is made available, the consequence of human interference, habitat alteration or climate change on the species diversity cannot be assessed. An attempt has been made in this study to conduct a survey of earthworm species available in the selected forest ecosystems of the NBR. The findings of this study have shown that 84.67?% of the earthworm species identified is native, while the rest are exotic. On the basis of total number of earthworms collected, exotics accounted for 1.55?%, indicating the predominance of native species in the study area and indicating that this habitat is less disturbed. Among the species identified from Mukurthi, Priodochaeta pellucida is listed as vulnerable and has never been encountered since its discovery about 100?years ago. Shannon–Weiner indices showed that evergreen forests of Silent Valley have a high species diversity as do shola/grasslands of Mukurthi and moist deciduous forests of Muthanga.     

Arbuscular mycorrhizas of plants growing in the Western Ghats region, Southern India

A survey of the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) status of plants growing in the Western Ghats region of Southern India was undertaken. Root and soil samples of plants growing in the four vegetation types forest, grassland, scrub, and cultivated land or plantation were examined. Of the 329 species (representing 61 families) examined, 174 were mycorrhizal. AM association was recorded in 81 species for the first time, including species from several families assumed to be non-mycorrhizal, e.g. Amaranthaceae, Capparaceae, Commelinaceae, Cyperaceae and Portulacaceae. AM fungal spores of 35 species belonging to Acaulospora, Gigaspora, Glomus, Sclerocystis and Scutellospora were recorded. AM fungal species richness was found to be highest in scrub and lowest in agricultural and plantation soils. Mean colonization levels were dependent on plant life-form, life-cycle pattern and vegetation type. Accepted: 26 October 1999     

Endemism and sexual systems in the evergreen tree flora of the Western Ghats, India

This study reports the endemism and sexual system in the wet evergreen tree flora of the Western Ghats. A total of 656 species from 66 families and 231 genera were listed. This included a gymnosperm family (Podocarpaceae) and a monocot family (Arecaceae). No family was endemic to the Western Ghats, but 352 species (53%) from 43 families and five genera were endemic. Nearly 35% of the families had no endemics. The largest families with endemics were Dipterocarpaceae (92%), Anacardiaceae (84%), Lauraceae (72%), Fabaceae, Rubiaceae and Myrtaceae (68%). The top five contributing families in the tree flora of the Western Ghats were Euphorbiaceae, Lauraceae, Rubiaceae, Myrtaceae and Annonaceae. The 656 species were largely hermaphrodites (57%) followed by dioecious (20%), polygamous (16%) and monoecious species (5%). The rate of dioecy reported in this study (20%) is higher than reports for Puerto Rico (18%) but lower than the Malaysian rainforest (26%). Structurally, like the Neotropical forests, most evergreen forest types of the Western Ghats could be classified into four ensembles. Yet, the Western Ghats had fewer species than other tropical and Neotropical forests. The proportion of endemics in the ensembles of the Western Ghats ranged from 34% (ensemble IV) to 14% (ensemble I).     

Agni's fungi: heat-resistant spores from the Western Ghats, southern India

This study concerns the thermotolerance of spores of mesophilic fungi isolated from a tropical semi-arid habitat subject to dry season fire in the Western Ghats, southern India. Among 25 species of Ascomycota isolated from leaf litter, nine were able to grow after incubation in a drying oven for 2h at 100°C; the spores of two of these species survived 2h incubation at 110°C, and one survived exposure to 115°C for 2h. The range of thermotolerance among mesophilic fungi isolated from the leaf litter was surprising: filamentous fungi from other habitats, including species that colonize scorched vegetation after fires and thermophilic forms occurring in self-heating plant composts, cannot survive even brief exposure to such high temperatures. It is possible that the exceptional heat resistance of the Indian fungi is related to adaptations to surviving fires. Genetic analysis of the physiological mechanisms of heat resistance in these fungi offers prospects for future biotechnological innovations. The discovery of extreme thermotolerance among common saprotrophs shows that this physiological trait may be more widespread than recognized previously, adding to concern about the evolution of opportunistic pathogens on a warmer planet. The fungi in this study are among the most heat-resistant eukaryotes on record and are referred to here as 'Agni's Fungi', after the Hindu God of Fire.     

Distribution, endemism and threat status of freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India

Aim To study (1) the large-scale distribution patterns of freshwater fishes in the Western Ghats of India; (2) the endemism and uniqueness of the fishes in various zones; and (3) the threat status of fishes by categorizing them under low risk (LR), vulnerable (VU), endangered (EN) and critically endangered (CR). Location The Western Ghats of India. Methods The scientific literature describing the freshwater fishes of the Western Ghats was reviewed. Data describing the lists of the species were extracted and complied. The species accumulation curve was plotted using Michaelis–Menten-like equation. The Western Ghats was divided into six zones and similarity of the species was calculated using Jacquard's index. Results Literature to date records 288 species belonging to 12 orders, 41 families and 109 genera, of which 118 species are endemic and 51 are unique. However, the species accumulation curve shows that there might be 345 species in this region, indicating that 16% species have not been recorded to date. An analysis of the distribution pattern of fishes in the Western Ghats suggests that the southern region is more diverse than the northern and central regions. The southern region shows high endemism and high uniqueness while the northern region shows high endemism but less uniqueness. The similarity index between the zones indicates that as the distance between the zones increases similarity decreases. The status of 105 of 288 species was not known due to data deficiency but among the remaining 183 species, 58 species were categorized as LR, 41 as VU, 54 as EN, 24 as CR while the remaining six species were introduced. Conclusions The distribution patterns of fishes in the Western Ghats are discussed in accordance with the geography of Western Ghats, its climatic conditions and ‘Satpura Hypothesis’. The threat status of fishes found in Western Ghats suggests that at least 41% of fish fauna is threatened by either being VU, EN or CR. Implication of potent conservation measures is necessary to conserve the fish fauna of Western Ghats.     

Reproductive phenology of a wet forest understorey in the Western Ghats, South India

The reproductive phenology of 60 understorey species was monitored at monthly intervals for 20 months in a medium elevation wet evergreen forest in the Southern Western Ghats. The life forms monitored were herbs (including terrestrial orchids), shrubs and small trees. Flowering and fruiting were non‐uniform with a dry season flowering peak and wet season fruiting peak. Flowering in the understorey correlated negatively with rainfall. No significant correlation was detected for fruiting. Life forms had flowering and fruiting peaks at different times of the year.     

A new species of Cycas from the Malabar Coast, Western Ghats, India

A new cycad species,Cycas annaikalensis, has been discovered from the Malabar Coast of the southern Western Ghats of India. Although geographically distributed in a small population within the range ofC. circinalis, it can be distinguished from the other described IndianCycas species by its distinct habitat, habit, morphology of vegetative and reproductive parts, and anatomy of leaflets.     

Occurrence of Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus in tropical and subtropical plants of Western Ghats, India

Endophytic bacteria were isolated from the tissues of surface sterilized roots, stems, and leaves of fifty different crop plants. Phenotypic, biochemical tests and species-specific PCR assay permitted identification of four isolates of Gluconacetobacter diazotrophicus from root tissues of carrot (Daucus carota L.), raddish (Raphanus sativus L.), beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) and coffee (Coffea arabica L.). Further the plant growth promoting traits such as nitrogenase activity, production of phytohormone indole acetic acid (IAA), phosphorus and zinc solubilization were assessed. Significant nitrogenase activity was recorded among the isolates and all the isolates produced IAA in the presence of tryptophan. Though all the four isolates efficiently solubilized phosphorus, the zinc solubilizing ability differed among the isolates.     

Plant diversity,structure and regeneration potential in tropical forests of Western Ghats,India

Diversity, stand structure and regeneration potential are the key elements of any forest ecosystem. For the present study, seven sites were selected with the aims of assessing plant diversity, structure and regeneration potential in tropical forests across Kanyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS), Western Ghats, India. The sites were classified based on the similarity: tropical dry deciduous sites (TDDs I and II), tropical semi-evergreen sites (TSEs I and II) and tropical evergreen sites (TEFs I-III). The phytosociological survey was done by laying a total of 70 plots (10 plots in each study site). Standard methods were followed for the assessment of diversity, structure and regeneration patterns. A total of 267 species (205 genera, 70 families) were recorded. The tree species richness ranged 24 (TDD II) – 76 (TEF III). Of the vegetation spectrum, trees, vines and understorey accounted 56.5, 15.3 and 28.2% respectively to the total flora documented. A total of 66 species were endemic. The total tree density and tree basal area (seedlings, saplings, juveniles and adults) were 18,790 individuals (mean 2684) and 137.6 m² (mean 19.7 m²) in 70 plots respectively. The mean tree adult density and basal area ranged 370 (TDD I) – 900 (TEF I) individuals/ha and 24.2 (TDD I) – 75.3 (TEF III) m²/ha respectively. The overall species richness was highest in TDD I, but TEF III had the highest tree species richness. The diameter class-wise distribution showed the characteristic ‘reverse J-shaped’ curve. Most tree species were ‘newly recruited’. The dominant species had ‘fair’ to ‘good’ regeneration potential. However, 12 tree species showed ‘no’ regeneration. The overall regeneration pattern of trees was ‘good’, but ‘no’ or ‘poor’ regeneration patterns in some tree species, especially endemics is a point of concern. Since a majority of tree species were ‘new recruits’, species composition may likely change in the future. The results obtained would help in understanding diversity patterns, structural attributes and regeneration potential in tropical forests of protected areas for better forest management and conservation.