Postconflict behavior among female Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys Rhinopithecus roxellana within one-male units in the Qinling Mountains,China

<正> For group-living primates, the information on postconflict management is crucial for understanding primate competitionand cooperation. However, such information is poorly known for snub-nosed monkeys, especially for wild populations. Inthis study, from September 2007 to June 2008, we investigated postconflict behavior among adult females Sichuan snub-nosedmonkeys Rhinopithecas roxellana within one-male units in a wild, provisioned group in the Qinling Mountains of China bymeans of the time-rule method and the PC-MC method. We obtained a total of 81 PC-MC pairs and each individual was involvedin only 0.004 aggressive behavior per observation hour. The first affiliative behavior was more likely to occur within the firstminute after a conflict. The postconflict affiliative behaviors most often seen were contact-sit, embrace and grooming. The affiliativecontacts between adult females occur due to selective attraction, i.e. reconciliation. The pattern of postconflict affiliationdemonstrates that the R. roxellana belongs to a tolerant species     

Social organization of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, Central China

Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys were observed for 197 days from 2000 to 2003 in the Qinling Mountains, Central China. The study group was provisioned in 2001 allowing detailed observations of social organization based on individual identification. The group was composed of 45–82 monkeys, all of which belonged to one of 6–8 one-male units (OMU) that foraged to form one big group. The average unit size was 9.0±2.3, 8±1.5 in the winter and 11.1±2.0 in the spring. Immigration or emigration of one-male units to or from the foraging group was observed, as was migration of individuals in and out of OMU, especially for by subadult females and juveniles. Group size therefore tended to fluctuate with the number of OMU and the number of young monkeys present in the group. The OMU in the study area were smaller than those in Shennongjia area. The factors influencing the size of these OMU and the entire group are discussed.     

Impact of group size on female reproductive success of free-ranging Rhinopithecus roxellana in the Qinling Mountains, China

Group size influences female reproductive success through scramble/contest feeding competition, predation pressures and infanticide risks in primates. The Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) is an endangered folivorous colobine species living in a multilevel society. From 2002 to 2008, we studied a free-ranging band of R. roxellana in the Qinling Mountains of China to examine the effect of group size on female reproductive success. During our observation period, the number of monkeys in the study band fluctuated from 61 to 108, and the number of one-male/multi-female groups within it varied from 7 to 10. A significant negative linear relationship was found between group size and birth rate, but group size was not significantly correlated with infant survival rate or interbirth interval. These results suggest that group size influences female reproductive success via within-group scramble competition in this folivorous species.     

Seasonal home range changes of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains of China

The seasonal changes in home range and habitat use of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana, have been studied by radio tracking and direct observation in the Qinling Mountains of China. The home range size was 14.1 km(2) in spring, 9.5 km(2) in summer, 12.1 km(2) in autumn and 12.3 km(2) in winter; the total area used was 22.5 km(2). The area of the home range is closely correlated with the distribution and abundance of food resources. Seasonal change in the home range area is correlated with the phenology of the vegetation. An unusually large home range is a unique characteristic of this monkey.     

秦岭川金丝猴一周岁内个体的行为发育

2003年3月至2004年5月在陕西周至国家自然保护区的玉皇庙地区,采用目标动物取样法(Focal ani-mal sampling)对2003年出生的5只金丝猴个体行为发育进行了观察,应用全事件记录法(All-occurrences record-ing)进行数据的收集。结果表明23日龄婴儿首次从母亲怀内爬出在树枝上活动,68日龄开始在树上攀爬跳跃,5月龄主动采食树叶和啃投食区食物,6月龄跟随社群迁移。依据婴幼儿主要行为首次出现时间及其变化,把1周岁内个体发育分为5个时期,即完全依赖期、探索外部世界期、融入社群期、适应生存期和逐步独立期。1周岁内婴幼儿活动和休息的地方是母亲怀里、其它个体怀里、树枝上和地面上。随着发育,婴幼儿在这些地方停留的时间也在变化。1周岁内婴幼儿在母亲怀中的时间与年龄存在明显的负相关,在其它个体怀里的时间与年龄也呈显著负相关。虽然独自在树上的时间与年龄相关性不显著,但在地面上停留的时间与年龄呈正相关。     

Inter-unit contests within a provisioned troop of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, China

Numerical superiority does not always ensure victory in intergroup contests. Although group size is likely to determine the maximum resource holding potential (RHP) of a group, the realized RHP is the collective outcome of individual group members' choices about participation in any given contest. For any group member, the choice about participation should be based on the assessment of costs and benefits that are affected by both ecological and social factors. In this study, we studied inter-unit contests in a provisioned troop of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana). We spent 368?hr in contact with 9 one-male units sharing the same home range, during which we recorded 148 inter-unit contests at a provisioning site. Inter-unit contests always started as inter-individual contests. Contests escalated only when the two individuals were of different age-sex classes and one was an adult male. When a contest escalated, additional individuals were likely to get involved, and the outcome of the contest depended on unit members' choices about participation. The superiority in the number of participants rather than the superiority in unit size led to victory in inter-unit contests, given that the difference in unit size did not predict a difference in the number of participants. Unit members were more likely to support others in inter-unit contests in winter when food was sparse than in spring when food was abundant. In addition, unit members were more likely to support others in escalated contests than in those resulting in displacement, indicating that they tended to alter the outcome of a contest to gain immediate benefit. Although males initiated most inter-unit contests, a clear win-loss was most likely when females joined the fight. This sex difference may reflect the benefits to males vs. females of living in a multi-level society.     

秦岭川金丝猴的凝视行为研究

婴儿出生9个月就开始跟随母亲的视线接触外界社会活动,那么与人亲缘关系较近的灵长类,它们是否也拥有这种能力?凝视行为是否可以作为一种认知发育的行为指标?是否可以被测量并用于诊断?本研究选取秦岭川金丝猴Rhinopithecus roxellanae为观察对象,设置川金丝猴照片引导实验,运用焦点动物取样法对不同年龄组的凝视行为进行观察记录。结果发现秦岭川金丝猴存在凝视现象,不同年龄组的行为发生方式存在差异,表明凝视行为可能是灵长类在早期就出现的一种发育行为。此研究方法可以为不同成长环境儿童的行为测量和诊断提供参考。     

Sex differences in habitat use,positional behavior,and gaits of Golden Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains,Shaanxi, China

Primates - Studies of positional behavior, gait, and habitat use are important for understanding how animals adapt to the challenges of their environment. In turn, this information is useful for...     

秦岭野生雌性川金丝猴粪便睾酮水平与邀配频次的季节性变化

为研究野生雌性川金丝猴(Rhinopithecus roxellana)不同季节体内睾酮水平与性行为频次的变化及二者的关系,我们以秦岭一野生川金丝猴种群为研究对象,通过长时间连续跟踪观察,完成了该种群中所有87只金丝猴的个体识别。用无损伤取样法采集了三只成年雌性川金丝猴不同季节的粪样,对粪样中的睾酮进行抽提测定,同时对采样个体的性行为进行记录。结果显示:1)成年雌猴在交配盛期与非交配盛期,粪样中睾酮水平均呈明显的周期性波动,交配盛期时睾酮水平的变化周期为24.56 d±4.07 d,非交配盛期时为43.67 d±2.89 d,显著长于交配盛期;2)成年雌猴在交配盛期的粪样睾酮水平为2.85 ng±1.12 ng/g,邀配频次为0.98±1.04次/d,非交配盛期时睾酮水平为1.71 ng±0.77 ng/g,邀配频次为0.28±0.53次/d,与交配盛期相比,非交配盛期的睾酮水平和邀配频次均明显降低;3)交配盛期各成年雌猴的粪样睾酮水平与邀配频次均有较显著的正相关关系(相关系数分别为0.631、0.683和0.659),而在非交配盛期这种相关关系并不存在(相关系数分别为0.091、0.493和0.205)。本研究表明,成年雌性川金丝猴体内睾酮水平、睾酮水平变化周期及邀配行为频次均具有明显的季节性差异,这种季节性差异可能是川金丝猴行季节性繁殖的内在原因和外在表现之一。本研究亦表明交配盛期雌猴的性行为频次在一定程度上可能受体内睾酮水平的控制,而在非交配盛期这种控制作用较弱。     

秦岭玉皇庙川金丝猴2-3岁内个体社会行为的性别差异

2005年3月至2006年5月在秦岭北坡的陕西周至国家级自然保护区玉皇庙地区,采用焦点动物取样法(Focal animal sampling)观察动物,利用瞬时记录法(Instantaneous recording)等记录数据,对2003年出生的7只秦岭川金丝猴(Rhinopithecus roxellana)个体(3♀、4♂)的社会理毛、社会玩耍、被驱赶、攻击、爬跨等行为进行了研究,以了解该物种社会行为的发育在2-3岁阶段是否存在性别间的差异。结果表明:雌、雄二性社会理毛行为的平均频次存在显著性差异(♀11.86%、♂6.55%),并且这种显著性差异也体现在理毛婴猴行为(♀3.64%、♂1.26%)和理毛母亲行为(♀4.61%、♂2.70%)方面;雄性社会玩耍行为的平均频次与雌性相比也有显著性差异(♀4.44%、♂7.39%),这与被驱赶行为性别差异的研究结果相同(♀0.42、♂1.98);爬跨行为的平均频次也表现出显著性的性别差异(♀0.034、♂1.83),如同攻击行为(♀0.043、♂0.088)。另外,我们在将2-3岁阶段分为4个小发育阶段的基础上,还发现除雌性理毛婴猴行为的发生频次和雄性被驱赶行为的发生频次与年龄(阶段)呈极显著正相关外,雌性和雄性其它行为的发生频次与年龄均不相关。因此,川金丝猴2-3岁内个体社会行为的发育具有显著性的性别差异,且在一定程度上反映了雌雄二性不同的生活史,而这种行为上的策略正是该物种在长期进化中在群体水平上对自然选择压力的回应,以增加个体的适合度,使种群得以繁衍.     

The reproductive behavior of golden monkeys in captivity (Rhinopithecus roxellana roxellana)

The reproductive behavior of two captive harem breeding groups of golden monkeys was observed over one mating season and compared to non-seasonal reproductive behavior. Observation of over two thousand sexual interactions suggests that 1) females were responsible for 95% of all sexual solicitations (proceptive behavior), of which the typical pattern was prostration, while males were responsible for only 5%; 2) 17% of female solicitations were interrupted by another female; 3) 52% of female solicitations resulted in mounting by males; 4) the frequencies of solicitations and receipt of mounts and ejaculations varied greatly among females; 5) the frequency of ejaculations, the ratio of ejaculations to mountings, and ejaculation patterns were different between two males, and 6) the golden monkey is a seasonal breeding animal.     

Copulation behavior within one-male groups of wild <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus roxellana</Emphasis> in the Qinling Mountains of China

This study was conducted using focal animal sampling on the west ridge group of the Sichuan snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) located in the Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve on the north slope of the Qinling Mountains, from 8 July 2003 to 24 May 2004. The difference in the average frequency of copulations for each focal male for each month was significant (F = 3.068, P = 0.016, one-way ANOVA test) with the majority of copulations occurring between September and November. Duration of intromission ranged from 2 to 39 s, with a mean of 16.0 ± 0.4 s. Females initiated 627 courtship attempts (96.2%), while males only initiated 3.8%. Both adult females (72.8%) and sub-adult females (27.2%) were involved in sexual interference acts. Females who gave birth in 2004 performed more sexual interference acts than would be expected by chance in the reproductive period of 2003 (X ² = 13.73 > X ² _0.005,2, df = 2, P < 0.005). Male response to female interference was equally divided into “solicitor mounting” and “interrupter mounting”. The resident males of one-male units were not observed to mount both the solicitor and the interrupter or mount neither following female solicitation interruptions. Three post-conception copulations were also observed in this study. These results suggest a skewed sexual competition, with multiple females competing for a single male, which was shown by courtship attempts and female interference.     

秦岭山中的川金丝猴

川金丝猴(Rhinopithecus roxellana)是我国特有物种。秦岭地区是川金丝猴的主要分布区之一．也是金丝猴分布的最北限依据近年来对笼养川金丝猴繁殖生理学和野生川金丝猴野外实地观察研究的成果,并结合已发表的资料,对秦岭地区川金丝猴的社群组成、行为、等级序位、繁殖与生育等方面做了综述。     

Sociosexual behavior of captive sichuan golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

The Sichuan golden snub-nosed monkey, Rhinopithecus roxellana, is an endangered Colobine endemic to China. The social and reproductive behavior of this species are little known, and it has rarely been kept in captivity outside China. Results from observations of a captive golden monkey pair revealed some unusual details of sociosexual behavior. Both members of the pair mounted one other, and female mounting of the male occurred nearly as often as the reverse. Male mounts were always preceded by a stereotyped behavioral sequence that included distinct facial and vocal displays. Female mounts occurred in response to male solicitation (presenting). No evidence of ejaculation was observed in association with mounts, although mounts were only observed in a distinctly sexual context. Sexual behavior was associated with aggressive displays by one or both animals and with apparently proceptive behavior by the female. All sexual behaviors showed a peak near the end of the study, although the female was continually receptive throughout the 2-month study period.     

Impact of male takeover on intra-unit sexual interactions and subsequent interbirth interval in wild Rhinopithecus roxellana

Data were collected on sexual interactions before and after a male takeover of a one-male unit (OMU) of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains, China. The original unit consisted of an adult male, 2 adult and 2 subadult females, 2 female juveniles and a single infant. Following the takeover, the new resident male copulated with 1 adult female, which was not lactating. Subsequent to the disappearance of her infant, the second (lactating female) entered breeding condition and began to solicit copulation with the new resident male. The subadult females also engaged in matings with the new male. The new resident male was observed mating, on 3 occasions, with females in 2 other OMUs. These are the first observations of sexual behaviour in free-ranging Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys after an OMU takeover. Sexual interactions play an important role in establishing relationships between the new male and resident females in the OMU.     

Vocal behavior of captive Sichuan golden monkeys (Rhinopithecus r. roxellana)

Vocal behavior of four pairs of adult Sichuan golden monkeys was studied at the San Diego, Seattle, Los Angeles, and San Francisco zoos between November 1984 and October 1986. Four call types made up 86% (1,357/ 1,578) of vocalizations that occurred during 45 h of tape-recording. All four major vocalization types were made by both sexes. There was, however, significant sexual asymmetry in their production: 82% to 99% of each type was produced by one sex or the other. Frequently, duets developed when an individual male or female responded to the vocalizations of its cagemate. Males vocalized more than did females in each of the four pairs, and males responded vocally to female calls more than twice as frequently.     

秦岭川金丝猴1至2岁个体的社会玩耍行为

2009年3月至2010年5月在秦岭北坡的陕西周至国家级自然保护区玉皇庙,采用焦点动物取样法(Focal animal sampling)和瞬时记录法(Instantaneous sampling)对2008年出生的5只秦岭川金丝猴幼体(3 ♂、2♀)的社会玩耍行为进行了研究.结果表明:1-2岁的川金丝猴对其不同年龄-性别组的玩耍伙伴具有很高的选择性,喜欢与单元内的青少年个体玩耍;其次喜欢与新生个体玩耍,与母亲、单元内主雄和其它成年雌性个体玩耍的机会不多.另外,该年龄段的个体在玩耍中常采用追逐和摔跤的方式,采用接近、撕咬和其它行为的方式均不高.雄性个体比雌性个体更常采用摔跤的行为方式,而雌性个体相比雄性个体更常采用接近等方式.在整个观察期,社会交往性的玩耍行为频次未发现个体差异和性别差异.此外,这些个体玩耍频次的发育与年龄阶段之间不存在线性相关.个体在这种行为的发育过程中不仅可锻炼身体、实践打斗技巧,建立社会关系,并且能获得一定的认知能力.