Food habits of the otter (Lutra lutra) in two habitats of the Doñana National Park, SW Spain

Food habits of otters Lutra lutra were studied in two localities of the Doñana National Park (SW Spain) 16 km apart. These were the lowest stretch of Arroyo Rocina, a eutrophic stream where American red-swamp-crayfish were introduced in 1976, and at Lucio Bolín, an artificial pond 150 m in diameter, situated on the border of the Guadalquivir marshes. In all, 598 spraints were analysed between 1979 and 1984. Crayfish, occurring in 80% of the spraints, was the dominant food item in Arroyo Rocina, where other common foods were fish (63%), insects (55%) and amphibians (18%). Fish, occurring in 94% of the spraints, were by far the most abundant food item in Lucio Bolin, followed by insects (32%) and amphibians (28%). Seasonal differences in diet were small but interesting: reptiles were eaten more often in the dry season (April-September) and insects and crayfish in the rainy season (October-March). Among fish, eels were more commonly eaten in the rainy period and the remaining species in the dry period. This pattern of seasonal variation is opposite to the usual in temperate Europe. Mean size of the captured eels was statistically higher in Lucio Bolin than in Arroyo Rocina. A large amount of very small fish such as Gambusia was eaten. A comparison of prey consumed with estimates of prey abundance reveals a strong preference for eels. The diet of Mediterranean European otters seems to be more diverse than that of northern European ones, including more insects, amphibians and reptiles.     

Evidence of high-energy events in the geological record: Mid-holocene evolution of the southwestern Doñana National Park (SW Spain)

Four phases are distinguished in the Mid-Holocene evolution of the southwestern Doñana National Park (SW Spain), based on the multidisciplinary study of sediments in drill cores. In the oldest phase (> 5500-5400 cal. years BP), a coastal, brackish lagoon occupied the central part of the study area, partly enclosed by the Doñana spit and limited by fluvial levees. An evolution from subtidal to intertidal conditions characterized the areas located close to the inner side of the Doñana spit during the same phase. The following phase (∼5400-5200 cal. years BP) is characterized by a high-energy event (tsunami?), which caused the breakthrough of the Doñana spit and the creation of new littoral strands in the inner areas. In the first period of the third phase (∼5200-4200 cal. years BP), estuarine infilling was probably the dominant process, with the accumulation of phyllosilicate-rich clays in the lagoon bed. This was followed by a renewed phase of instability (∼4200-4100 cal. years BP) indicated by the presence of fine storm-lain deposits and thicker, probably tsunami-induced shelly deposits. The last phase (∼4100-3700 cal. years BP) comprises: a) an infilling period, with a diminution of the marine influence; and b) two new high-energy events, which caused the erosion of the Doñana spit and the creation of new cheniers.In the last 7000 years, the comparison of these results with a revision of both geological and historical records has revealed the occurrence of twenty tsunamis (at least) during this period in Portugal and southern Spain. Evidences of these high-energy events are washover fans, bioclastic coarse-sized layers within salt marsh deposits or the presence of giant boulders and pebbles. The determination of the recurrence period is very difficult owing to the very scarce data, although our data and other authors do not discard a possible periodicity of 2000 years for a cycle of two events separated by 300-400 years.     

Parental care and the transition to independence of Spanish Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca in Doñana National Park, southwest Spain

The behaviour of five broods of radio-tagged Spanish Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca adalberti was studied in Doñana National Park, Spain during the post-fledging period. The distance between perching sites and nest, the mean flight duration and distance, the percentage of time spent flying and the home range all increased exponentially with age. As the young got older, the parents spent less time in their vicinity. Young were not seen hunting, but depended on their parents for food. They begged and chased their parents throughout the post-fledging period, with higher intensity at the end. Nevertheless, the adults became progressively more reluctant to feed them, as reflected in the decrease in feeding frequency and in the number of approaching flights towards the young. At the end of the post-fledging period, adults often performed aerial displays and frequently chased their offspring. The age of independence of the different young studied varied between 123 and 145 days. The correlations between individual independence and the dates when the young were last fed by their parents, and when the highest intensity of parental aggressive behaviour occurred, were higher than correlations with the variables related to the maturation of flying. Therefore, it is suggested that parental 'meanness' and aggressive behaviour may be the factors determining the date of juvenile independence and dispersal from the home territory.     

Population studies and reproduction of the feral cattle (Bos taurus) of Amsterdam Island, Indian Ocean

Amsterdam Island has supported a population of feral cattle since 1871. In 1987 a fence was erected across the island, and in 1988 and 1989 the whole population ( n = 1059) living south of the fence (study area) was removed. Nine hundred and sixty one culls were analysed. Age of calves indicated that reproduction was seasonal, as 78% of births occurred within four months. Age at first calving ranged from 2–4 years. An estimation of the fertility (rate of conception) was 0-73 foetuses per cow per year.
In the north part of the study area, 50–80 males have been killed for beef each year since 1951. The effect of hunting was analysed and a zone where cattle had been free from human interference was defined. In this zone sex ratio was biased towards males (252 M:201 F), owing to female biased mortality in individuals older than three years. The cause of the biased mortality might be a differential use of food resources between sexes.     

Effects of nitrate contamination and seasonal variation on the denitrification and greenhouse gas production in La Rocina Stream (Doñana National Park, SW Spain)

Climatic influence (global warming and decreased rainfall) could lead to an increase in the ecological and toxicological effects of the pollution in aquatic ecosystems, especially contamination from agricultural nitrate (NO₃⁻) fertilizers. Physicochemical properties of the surface waters and sediments of four selected sites varying in NO₃⁻ concentration along La Rocina Stream, which feeds Marisma del Rocio in Doñana National Park (South West, Spain), were studied. Electrical conductivity, pH, content in macro and microelements, total organic carbon and nitrogen, and dissolved carbon and nitrogen were affected by each sampling site and sampling time. Contaminant NO₃⁻ in surface water at the site with the highest NO₃⁻ concentration (ranged in 61.6-106.6 mg L⁻¹) was of inorganic origin, most probably from chemical fertilizers, as determined chemically (90% of the total dissolved nitrogen from NO₃⁻) and by isotopic analysis of δ¹⁵N-NO₃⁻. Changes in seasonal weather conditions and hydrological effects at the sampling sites were also responsible for variations in some biological activities (dehydrogenase, β-glucosidase, arylsulphatase, acid phosphatase and urease) in sediments, as well as in the production of the greenhouse gases CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O. Both organic matter and NO₃⁻ contents influenced rates of gas production. Increased NO₃⁻ concentration also resulted in enhanced levels of potential denitrification measured as N₂O production. The denitrification process was affected by NO₃⁻ contamination and the rainfall regimen, increasing the greenhouse gases emissions (CO₂, CH₄ and especially N₂O) during the driest season in all sampling sites studied.     

Spatiotemporal distribution of microbial communities in a coastal, sandy aquifer system (Doñana, SW Spain)

The aquifer system of Doñana (SW Spain) represents the most important freshwater source in the Doñana Natural Area. Its spatiotemporal dynamics favours the hydrological connection between surface and subsurface ecosystems, and promotes matter fluxes among the different terrestrial and aquatic systems present here. This aquifer has been intensively studied from a hydrogeological point of view but little is known from an ecological perspective. In order to understand the ecological roles played by microbial communities in this system, we conducted a long-term seasonal study of bacterial abundance, cell biomass, bacterial biomass and functional activities over a 2-year period. Bacterial abundance ranged between 2.11 ± 1.79 × 10⁵ and 8.58 ± 6.99 × 10⁷ bacteria mL⁻¹ groundwater, average cell biomass was estimated to be 77.01 ± 31.56 fgC and bacterial biomass varied between 8.99 ± 4.10 × 10⁻² and 5.65 ± 0.70 µgC mL⁻¹. Iron-related bacteria showed the highest activities among the functional groups studied. Moreover, among the variables that usually control spatial distributions of microbial communities in aquifer systems, depth did not have a relevant effect on this aquifer, at least in the range of depths studied, but grain size, probably due to its direct effects on hydrogeological parameters, such as permeability or porosity, appeared to exert moderate control, principally in terms of bacterial abundance. Finally, significant seasonal differences in the means of these microbiological variables were also observed; temperature seems to be the main factor controlling the temporal distribution of microbial communities in this aquifer system.     

Passive internal transport of aquatic organisms by waterfowl in Doñana, south-west Spain

Aim Waterbirds may play an important role in the maintenance of aquatic ecosystem biodiversity by transporting plants and invertebrate propagules between different wetlands. The aim of this study is to provide the first quantitative analysis of the transport of plant and animal propagules by a community of waterbirds. Location Doñana marshes in south‐west Spain. Methods We quantified the number of intact seeds and invertebrate eggs in 386 faecal samples from 11 migratory waterfowl species (10 ducks and coot), collected from 3 November to 3 December 1998 (when birds were arriving from further north), and 22–25 February 1999 (when birds were leaving Doñana). Results Intact seeds of at least 7 plant genera, and invertebrate eggs (ephippia of at least 2 crustacea, statoblasts of at least 2 bryozoans and eggs of Corixidae) occurred in 65.6% of the faecal samples in early winter and 67.8% in late winter. Main conclusions The abundance of different propagule types varied between waterfowl species in a seasonal and species specific manner, probably owing to differences in foraging strategies, bill and gut morphology, and seasonal shifts in propagule availability or distribution. Lamellar density was positively correlated with the abundance of intact propagules. Our results confirm that waterfowl play an important role in the dispersal of organisms in aquatic environments by internal transport. Wherever there is a propagule bank accessible to waterbirds, transport can occur even when propagule production and waterfowl movements do not overlap in time.     

Social behaviour of the calves of semi-wild Maremma cattle,Bos primigenius taurus

The social behaviour of semi-wild free-ranging Maremma calves, Bos primigenius taurus, was observed daily in their first 2 months from birth at the estate La Trappola (Ponticelli Reserve), 10 Km south-west of Grosseto, Tuscany, Italy. In the first 2–3 days of life the calves hid in the maquis, while the cows grazed in the surrounding area. The time spent at close range to the cows decreased with the increase in the age of the calves, but the time spent far from the mother was always greater than that spent at close or intermediate ranges. Lying down was the dominant activity at a distance over 15 m from the mother, while the time spent in standing still decreased daily. The daily mean of the minutes spent by the calves with their peers reached peaks between their 11th and 40th days of life. Sucking bouts reached a peak between 09.00 and 10.00 h, after the herd reached the grazing area from the night dormitory. Another peak occurred between 15.00 and 16.00 h. Calves solicited and terminated sucking bouts spontaneously more than cows. The mean duration of each sucking bout increased with calf age, but was negatively correlated with the mean daily number of sucking bouts. Immediately before or after a sucking bout, cows mainly sniffed their calves in the muzzle and tail area. Calves sniffed and licked the cows mainly in the area of the udder. Play activity reached a peak in the early morning, decreased strongly at mid-day and increased again in mid-afternoon. Grazing, and to a lesser extent moving to and from the pasture land, were the most frequent activities occurring before and after play. Frontal pushes were the most preferred kind of play by both females and males. Female calves soliciting play in males showed significantly more “frontal pushing” than “non-reproductive mounts”. The male calves were more often initiators of play than were females.     

Identical marker alleles in Podolic cattle (Bos taurus) and Indian zebu (Bos indicus)

In the context of biochemical marker research and in order to add new information on native breeds, the present work focuses on a local Southern Italy cattle, namely Italian Podolic. We provide the complete structural characterisation of alpha-lactalbumins and beta-globin chains isolated from Podolic cattle (Bos taurus). Given the unavailability of the complete sequence for alpha-lactalbumin A of taurine cattle in the literature, we intended to check its structure in order to ascertain the absence of any possible silent mutation. Screening the Podolic cattle, we found a new beta-globin variant not detectable by conventional methods. The presence of such a new variant might be helpful in the study of the Podolic population genetic structure and for a better knowledge of the gene pool per se, and in comparison with the other breeds. Structural analyses showed that the new beta-globin Podolic variant exhibited the same sequence as beta-globin Azebu. The alpha-lactalbumin A was the same as that isolated from zebu cattle (Bos indicus). The results are discussed in relation to the possible involvement of the two markers in the debate on the origin of the Podolic breed.     

Age and size structure of populations of small marbled newts (Triturus marmoratus pygmaeus) from Doñana National Park (SW Spain). A case of dwarfism among dwarfs

The body size of specimens of Triturus marmoratus pygmaeus from Doñana is the smallest recorded for this subspecies. Snout-vent length averages 42.3 mm in males, and 43.9 mm in females. Mean body mass in males is 2.04 g and 2.29 g in females. The age of newts was estimated by means of skeletochronological methods. The maximum longevity recorded was 10 years in females and nine years in males, with one or two years being the age at maturity. As in other newts, body size is not a good predictor of age, since a wide range of body length was found within each age class. Growth in females was substantial in subsequent years, showing an overall positive tendency. However, males showed slight or even negative growth. Newts from Doñana are different from other nearby localities with similar climatic characteristics. This is mainly due to their short juvenile and terrestrial phase.     

Influence of the breed of bull (Bos taurus indicus vs. Bos taurus taurus) and the breed of cow (Bos taurus indicus, Bos taurus taurus and crossbred) on the resistance of bovine embryos to heat

In vitro studies have shown that Bos taurus indicus (B. t. indicus) embryos submitted to heat shock at early stages of development are better able to survive as compared to Bos taurus taurus embryos. Embryo genotype influences resistance to heat shock thus leading to the question as to whether embryos sired by thermo-tolerant breeds exhibit the same resistance to heat shock. In the present study the influence of both oocyte and semen, on the resistance to heat shock (HS) at early stages of in vitro development, was assessed in B. t. indicus [Nelore (N) breed], B. t. taurus [Holstein (H) and Angus (A) breeds] and crossbreds. In Experiment 1, Nelore and crossbred oocytes were collected from slaughterhouse ovaries and fertilized with spermatozoa from Nelore and Angus bulls. Presumptive embryos were collected and randomly assigned to control (39 degrees C) or HS at 12, 48 or 96 h post insemination (hpi; 41 degrees C for 12h) treatments. The cleavage rates and proportion of embryos developing to the blastocyst and hatched blastocyst stages were recorded on Days 2, 8 and 10, respectively. Heat shock treatment decreased development of both Nelore and crossbred embryos. There was a significant interaction between time (12, 48 or 96 hpi) and temperature for blastocyst rates, i.e., the embryos became more thermotolerant as development proceeded. In Experiment 2, oocytes from Nelore and Holstein cows were fertilized with semen from bulls of either Nelore or Angus breeds, and subjected to 12 h HS at 96 hpi. Heat shock at 96 hpi, decreased embryo development. Additionally, cowxtreatment and bullxtreatment interactions were significant for blastocyst rates, i.e., both breed of cow and breed of bull affected the decline in blastocyst rate caused by heat shock treatment. In conclusion, the present results indicate that Nelore embryos (indicus) are more resistant to heat shock than Holstein (taurus) at early stages of in vitro development, and that embryos become more thermo-tolerant as development proceeds. Additionally, the resistance to heat shock was a result of the genetic contribution from both oocyte and spermatozoa.     

Cryptosporidium andersoni n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporiidae) from cattle, Bos taurus

A new species of Cryptosporidium is described from the feces of domestic cattle, Bos taurus. Oocysts are structurally similar to those of Cryptosporidium muris described from mice but are larger than those of Cryptosporidium parvum. Oocysts of the new species are ellipsoidal, lack sporocysts, and measure 7.4 x 5.5 microm (range, 6.0-8.1 by 5.0-6.5 microm). The length to width ratio is 1.35 (range, 1.07-1.50). The colorless oocyst wall is < 1 microm thick, lacks a micropyle, and possesses a longitudinal suture at one pole. A polar granule is absent, whereas an oocyst residuum is present. Oocysts were passed fully sporulated and are not infectious to outbred, inbred immunocompetent or immunodeficient mice, chickens or goats. Recent molecular analyses of the rDNA 18S and ITS1 regions and heat-shock protein 70 (HSP-70) genes demonstrate this species to be distinct from C. muris infecting rodents. Based on transmission studies and molecular data, we consider the large form of Cryptosporidium infecting the abomasum of cattle to be a new species and have proposed the name Cryptosporidium andersoni n. sp. for this parasite.     

Cryptosporidium bovis n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) in cattle (Bos taurus)

A new species of Cryptosporidium, C. bovis, is described. Oocysts of C. bovis, previously identified as Cryptosporidium genotype Bovine B (GenBank AY120911), are morphologically indistinguishable from those of C. parvum. They are excreted fully sporulated and contain 4 sporozoites, but lack sporocysts. Oocysts measure 4.76-5.35 microm (mean = 4.89 microm) x 4.17-4.76 microm (mean = 4.63 microm), with a length-to-width ratio of 1.06 (n = 50). Oocysts were not infectious for neonatal BALB/ c mice, but were infectious for 2 calves that were previously infected with C. parvum. Oocysts were not infectious for 2 experimentally exposed lambs less than 1 wk of age and were not detected in 42 lambs 2-3 mo of age, but were detected in a 2-wk-old lamb. In an earlier study, 79 of 840 calves on 14 dairy farms in 7 states were found infected with the new species. Most calves were 2-7 mo of age and none exhibited signs of diarrhea. This new species has been found in 10 of 162 calves aged 9 to 11 mo on a beef farm in Maryland. Fragments of the 18S rDNA, HSP-70, and actin genes were amplified by PCR, and purified PCR products were sequenced. Multilocus analysis of the 3 unlinked loci demonstrated the new species to be distinct from C. parvum and also demonstrated a lack of recombination, providing further evidence of species status. Based on these biological and molecular data, we consider this highly prevalent Cryptosporidium that infects primarily postweaned calves to be a new species and propose the name Cryptosporidium bovis n. sp. for this parasite.