Role of carnivores in the accumulation of the Sterkfontein Member 4 hominid assemblage: a taphonomic reassessment of the complete hominid fossil sample (1936-1999)

New taphonomic data on the Sterkfontein Member 4 (South Africa) fossil hominid assemblage are presented. The previous estimate of hominid individuals represented in the deposit (45) is increased to 87. New minimum numbers of hominid skeletal elements are provided, and incidences of bone surface damage inflicted by prehistoric biological agents are summarized. The hominid sample from Member 4 is composed predominately of gnathic remains and has a paucity of postcrania. This dearth of postcrania limits, to some extent, inferences about the formation of the Sterkfontein assemblage. However, carnivore tooth marks on some fossil specimens and an overall broad similarity in patterns of skeletal part representation between Sterkfontein and primate bone assemblages created by extant carnivores suggest that carnivores did have some involvement in the accumulation of the fossil hominid assemblage. Thus, this study provides support for the “carnivore‐collecting hypothesis” of Brain (Brain [ 1981 ] The Hunters or the Hunted? Chicago: University of Chicago Press), which implicates large carnivores as prominent collecting agents of hominid body parts in Sterkfontein Member 4. Evidence of bone surface damage is, however, too scant to make confident inferences about specific carnivore taxon/taxa involved in hominid bone collection at the site. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Hrdlicka revisited (external auditory canal exostoses)

To determine possible matter of opinion as to the existence of exostoses in the outer ear canals of Indian skulls from Dakota as an explanation for the marked difference in incidence of these tumors found by Hrdlicka and by us in previous studies, we have examined skeletal specimens reportedly seen by Hrdlicka, independently, and compared his and our results. The Smithsonian-Mobridge skulls both in Hrdlicka's and our opinion show definitely more exostoses than are found in other South Dakota Indian skeletal material we have examined. Our results here suggest a 5–6% difference attributable to opinion of the examiner. Reasons for the dissimilarity in frequency of exostoses between the Smithsonian-Mobridge skulls and other Dakota Indian skeletal collections are advanced.     

中国兽类标本收藏概略

兽类标本收藏是兽类学的基础,直接关系到兽类学以及分类学、生态学、动物地理学、形态学、古生物学与进化、考古学等领域的进展。在旧中国,由于当时国内兽类学基本上是个空白领域,只有极个别研究机构及少数学校保存了少量标本,亦由于几经动乱,到新中国成立之时,已所剩无几。新中国建立以后,兽类学在中国才得到真正的发展。三十余年来,随着研究机构和高等学校的陆续建立和兽类调查研究工作的不断开展,兽类标本迅速发展,至今已初具规模。     

Vitamin A toxicity in wild-caught African green vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops) after 2 years in captivity

Primate lab diets typically contain high vitamin A concentrations when compared with human recommended intakes. In this study, we analyzed the vitamin A contents of liver and serum from 13 adult female African green vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus aethiops). These monkeys were wild-caught and held in captivity for 2 y, during which time they consumed a standard primate diet. Liver vitamin A concentration (mean +/- 1 standard deviation) was 14.6 +/- 2.3 micromol retinol/g liver; subtoxicity in humans is defined as at least 1 micromol/g liver. The serum retinol concentration (0.93 +/- 0.21 microM) was not elevated. Hypertrophy and hyperplasia of hepatic stellate cells were present which, in conjunction with elevated hepatic vitamin A concentrations, are evidence of toxicity. Although the ramifications of chronically toxic vitamin A status in experimental monkeys have not been defined, this state may influence nonhuman primate research outcomes and confound data interpretation. The validity of bone mineral research using nonhuman primates is of greatest concern, in light of the association between vitamin A toxicity and compromised bone health.     

Use of primates in research: a global overview

We assessed the use of nonhuman primates and nonhuman primate biological material in research by reviewing studies published in 2001 in peer-reviewed journals. The number and species of primates used, the origin of the animals, the type of study, the area of research of the investigation, and the location at which the research was performed were tabulated. Additionally, factors related to the animals that may have affected the outcome of the experiments were recorded. A total of 2,937 articles involving 4,411 studies that employed nonhuman primates or nonhuman primate biological material were identified and analyzed. More than 41,000 animals were represented in the studies published in 2001. In the 14% of studies for which re-use could be determined, 69% involved animals that had been used in previous experiments. Published studies most commonly used nonhuman primates or nonhuman primate biological material from the species Chlorocebus aethiops (19%), Macaca mulatta (18%), M. fascicularis (9%), and Papio spp. (6%). Of these studies, 54% were classified as in vitro studies, 14% as noninvasive, 30% as chronic, and 1% were considered acute. Nonhuman primates were primarily used in research areas in which they appear to be the most appropriate models for humans. The most common areas of research were microbiology (including HIV/AIDS (26%)), neuroscience (19%), and biochemistry/chemistry (12%). Most (84%) of the primate research published in 2001 was conducted in North America, Europe, and Japan. The animals and conditions under which they were housed and used were rarely described. Although it is estimated that nonhuman primates account for an extremely small fraction of all animals used in research, their special status makes it important to report the many husbandry and environmental factors that influence the research results generated. This analysis has identified that editors rarely require authors to provide comprehensive information concerning the subjects (e.g., their origin), treatment conditions, and experimental procedures utilized in the studies they publish. The present analysis addresses the use of primates for research, including the effects of a shortage of suitable nonhuman primate subjects in many research areas.     

Skulls and skeletons of Gorilla in British collections

A survey is made of the skulls and skeletons of Gorilla in British collections. The method of recording data is described and there is a section on historical material. The localities of many specimens are listed, together with their present location.     

Nasal region polymorphism frequencies in the FrankfurtPan troglodytes verus collection

The results of a morphometric study on the mid-facial region in a collection of 278Pan troglodytes verus skulls are reported. Upwardly divergent nasal bones were found in 35 of the 124 specimens (28.2%) in which this feature could be analyzed. Appreciable separation (1 cm. or more) between nasion and glabella characterized 13 of the 154 skulls (8.4%) in which both these osteometric points could be observed. These findings document the wide ranges of variation that are normally to be found in modest-sized population samples of hominoid primates, and point to the inherent unreliability of cladistic analyses based on the hypothesis that hominoid primate taxa are monomorphic for these character states in the nasal region.     

Reproduction of the mongoose lemur (Lemur mongoz) in captivity

Responses to questionnaires sent to 20 institutions holding Lemur mongoz did not reveal which aspects of management or husbandry could account for reproductive failure in the captive population, but allowed some qualitative comparisons with data compiled for captive and wild animals. In general, reproduction has occurred initially among wild-caught specimens before tapering off, and rarely occurs in the captive F₁ generation. Data compiled by the International Species Inventory System and the International Zoo Yearbook revealed an aging captive population with no recent reproduction. No aspect of group composition, activity patterns, seasonal light regime, reproductive cycles, or diet could be linked to the lack of reproduction; and among lemurs subjected to the same conditions, some were known to reproduce while others did not. Lack of knowledge about this species and the threat of extinction for both captive and wild populations make an investigation of reproductive biology imperative. Recommendations for a research program are given.     

Survey of environmental enhancement programs for laboratory primates

Animal welfare regulations in the United States require that nonhuman primate environmental enhancement plans be made in accordance with currently accepted professional standards; however, little information is available for quantifying common practice. Here we report the results of a 2003 survey that was sent to individuals overseeing enrichment programs at a variety of primate research institutions. The surveys requested information on program administration and management, implementation standards, procedures, and constraints pertaining to major categories of environmental enrichment, as well as intervention plans for animals exhibiting behavioral pathologies. Data were obtained on the management of 35,863 primates in 22 facilities. Behavioral scientists performed program oversight at the majority of facilities. Most programs reported recent changes, most commonly due to external site visits, and least commonly resulting from internal review. Most facilities' institutional animal care and use committees (IACUCs) included of individuals with behavioral expertise, and about two-thirds reported that enrichment issues could influence research protocol design. While most primates were reported to be housed socially (73%), social housing for indoor-housed primates appears to have changed little over the past 10 years. Research protocol issues and social incompatibility were commonly cited constraints. Implementation of feeding, manipulanda, and structural enrichment was relatively unconstrained, and contributions to these aspects of behavioral management generally included individuals in a wide variety of positions within a facility. In contrast, enrichment devices were used on a less widespread basis within facilities, and positive reinforcement programs that involved dedicated trainers were rare. We suggest that altering the role of the IACUC would be a productive avenue for increasing the implementation of social housing, and that an emphasis on prevention rather than intervention against behavioral pathology is warranted. The data from this survey may be useful for anticipating future program evaluations, establishing more effective internal evaluations, and assessing program progress and resource allocation.     

Nonhuman primate infections after organ transplantation

Nonhuman primates, primarily rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta), cynomolgus macaques (Macaca fascicularis), and baboons (Papio spp.), have been used extensively in research models of solid organ transplantation, mainly because the nonhuman primate (NHP) immune system closely resembles that of the human. Nonhuman primates are also frequently the model of choice for preclinical testing of new immunosuppressive strategies. But the management of post-transplant nonhuman primates is complex, because it often involves multiple immunosuppressive agents, many of which are new and have unknown effects. Additionally, the resulting immunosuppression carries a risk of infectious complications, which are challenging to diagnose. Last, because of the natural tendency of animals to hide signs of weakness, infectious complications may not be obvious until the animal becomes severely ill. For these reasons the diagnosis of infectious complications is difficult among post-transplant NHPs. Because most nonhuman primate studies in organ transplantation are quite small, there are only a few published reports concerning infections after transplantation in nonhuman primates. Based on our survey of these reports, the incidence of infection in NHP transplant models is 14%. The majority of reports suggest that many of these infections are due to reactivation of viruses endemic to the primate species, such as cytomegalovirus (CMV), polyomavirus, and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-related infections. In this review, we address the epidemiology, pathogenesis, role of prophylaxis, clinical presentation, and treatment of infectious complications after solid organ transplantation in nonhuman primates.     

Aberrant growth of maxillary canine teeth in male babirusa (genus Babyrousa)

A worldwide survey of babirusa skulls curated in museum and private collections located 431 that were from adult males and had retained at least one maxillary canine tooth. Eighty-three of these skulls were identified as exhibiting aberrant maxillary canine tooth growth. Twenty-four of the skulls represented babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands, and forty-five skulls represented babirusa from Sulawesi and the Togian Islands. The remaining series of fourteen babirusa skulls originally came from zoo animals. Fifteen skulls showed anomalous alveolar and tooth rotation in a median plane. Twenty-nine skulls had maxillary canine teeth that did not grow symmetrically towards the median plane of the cranium. Fourteen skulls showed evidence that the tips of one or both maxillary canine teeth had eroded the nasal bones. Twenty-one skulls had maxillary canine teeth that had eroded the frontal bones. The teeth of two skulls had eroded a parietal bone. One skull had two maxillary canines arising from an adjacent pair of alveoli on the left side of the cranium. Three skulls exhibited alveoli with no formed maxillary canine teeth in them. Analysis suggested that approximately 12% of the adult male babirusa in the wild experience erosion of the cranial bony tissues as a result of maxillary canine tooth growth. There was no skeletal evidence that maxillary canine teeth penetrate the eye.     

Detection of serum antibodies in Ethiopian baboons that cross-react with SIV,HTLV-I,and type D retroviral antigens

Baboons (Papio cynocephalus) imported from Ethiopia were screened for antibodies to various primate retroviruses by immunoblotting. Antibodies that cross-reacted with SIV/Mne or with type D viral antigens were detected in approximately one-third of these animals. In addition, 20% of these baboons had antibodies that cross-reacted with HTLV-I viral antigens. These data suggest that wild-caught baboons are infected with retroviruses only partially related to known primate viral isolates.     

Genetic management of nonhuman primates

Genetic management is widely recognized as a critical component of the overall management of captive nonhuman primate colonies which produce animals for biomedical research. In this paper, we review the roles of conservation-oriented genetic management, research-oriented genetic management, genetic management at the level of taxomomic class, genetic management at the level of the population, and quantitative genetic analysis in comprehensive genetic management programs for nonhuman primate colonies. We conclude that genetic management is crucial for maintaining nonhuman primate populations suitable for genetic research on normal and disease-related phenotypes. In addition, for research programs that do not have specific genetic objectives, genetic management is essential to facilitate the selection of samples of well-matched unrelated animals for experimental purposes.     

An overview of biohazards associated with nonhuman primates

Because of their close phylogenetic relationship, human and nonhuman primates share susceptibility to many pathogens which do not affect lower animals. This similarity, which makes them invaluable models for studying human infectious diseases, also makes primate animals potentially dangerous to work with. The biohazards inherent in the use of nonhuman primates in biomedical research are zoonoses, injuries, and infectious agents introduced by study protocols. This review addresses the various kinds of parasites, fungi, rickettsiae, spirochetes, and viral agents found naturally occurring, or experimentally induced, in nonhuman primates with reference to measures for preventing spread among the animals or to personnel.     

Major stages in the evolution of primate neurocrania

An important constraint on the evolution of primate skeletons is the isometric relationship which exists between skeletal weight and body weight. The evolution of primate skulls during the Tertiary and Quaternary periods indicates that redeployment of bone mass took place largely within the skull (i.e. between proximate ossifying centres) and that the major vector was from the splanchnocranium towards the neurocranium. This vector of bone mass redeployment accords well with the general treand within primates of increased encephalisation over time. There are however, several interesting examples of vectors which were oriented in the opposite sense, in particular in the robust australopithecine lineage, in which the emphasis on bone mass deployment was towards the splanchnocranium and away from the neurocranium. A fuller understanding of skeletal isometry, and a wider application in comparative anatomy may throw much light on the evolution of skeletal systems, and it may resolve somelong-standing debates. Among these may be identification of the selection pressures which have led to dental and alveolar reduction inHomo sapiens sapiens (bone mass redeployment into the neurocranium) and perhaps an explanatation for some types of osteoporosis in old people whose body weight decreases may result in isometric skeletal mass decreases (for every 100 gms muscle tissue loss, there will be about 7 gms of bone tissue loss).     

Stereotypies in Captive Primates and the Use of Inositol: Lessons from Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder in Humans

Animal stereotypies have long been used in the study of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) in humans. These studies have led to the understanding of some of the molecular pathways in the disorder and the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and myo-inositol in the treatment of these conditions. If animal models, especially nonhuman primate models, were used to study human disorders and if the resulting treatments were successful, then conversely one should be able to treat nonhuman primate stereotypies with similar methods. We here summarize animal models of OCD (including nonhuman primate models) and human OCD treatments, and using successful human treatment by myo-inositol as models, recommend the use of myo-inositol in good captive management practice and the treatment of nonhuman primate stereotypies. We believe that this would be particularly useful in the treatment of stereotypies in nonhuman primates because they are physiologically so similar to humans.     

Development of a rotavirus-shedding model in rhesus macaques, using a homologous wild-type rotavirus of a new P genotype

Although there are several reports on rotavirus inoculation of nonhuman primates, no reliable model exists. Therefore, this study was designed to develop a rhesus macaque model for rotavirus studies. The goals were to obtain a wild-type macaque rotavirus and evaluate it as a challenge virus for model studies. Once rotavirus was shown to be endemic within the macaque colony at the Tulane National Primate Research Center, stool specimens were collected from juvenile animals (2.6 to 5.9 months of age) without evidence of previous rotavirus infection and examined for rotavirus antigen. Six of 10 animals shed rotavirus during the 10-week collection period, and the electropherotypes of all isolates were identical to each other but distinct from those of prototype simian rotaviruses. These viruses were characterized as serotype G3 and subgroup 1, properties typical of many animal rotaviruses, including simian strains. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the VP4 gene was performed with a culture-grown isolate from the stool of one animal, designated the TUCH strain. Based on both genotypic and phylogenetic comparisons between TUCH VP4 and cognate proteins of representatives of the reported 22 P genotypes, the TUCH virus belongs to a new genotype, P[23]. A pool of wild-type TUCH was prepared and intragastrically administered to eight cesarean section-derived, specific-pathogen-free macaques 14 to 42 days of age. All animals were kept in a biocontainment level 2 facility. Although no diarrhea was observed and the animals remained clinically normal, all animals shed large quantities of rotavirus antigen in their feces after inoculation, which resolved by the end of the 14-day observation period. Therefore, TUCH infection of macaques provides a useful nonhuman primate model for studies on rotavirus protection.     

Primate Communication: By Nature Honest, or by Experience Wise?

We review evolutionary views on honesty and deception and their application to studies of nonhuman primate communication. There is evidence that some primate signals are likely to be accurate on the basis of costliness. They appear most often in contexts that include overtly competitive interactions in which unrelated individuals have limited access to information about one another. However, both game theoretic models and most empirical work suggest that costly signals are not often likely to be the basis for honest communication in nonhuman primates. Inexpensive signaling can exist in contexts wherein communication occurs among related animals, something common among many nonhuman primate societies. Another condition in which inexpensive signaling is possible and that is also typical of nonhuman primates, is when sender and receiver both benefit from coordinated interactions. Additionally, when individuals interact repeatedly and can use past interactions to assess the honesty of signals and to modify future response to signals, low-cost signals can evolve. Nonhuman primates appear to deal with the problem of deception via skeptical responding, which can be largely accounted for by learning rules and the fact that they live in stable social groups and can recognize one another and recall past interactions.