细胞毒性T淋巴细胞表位预测

细胞毒性T淋巴细胞(cytotoxic T lymphocyte, CTL)表位预测是高效、准确筛选候选表位肽,进行表位疫苗设计的关键技术.随着免疫学和生物信息学的发展,一系列的算法和软件被开发并运用在 CTL表位的预测.本文综述了目前CTL表位预测的常用方法与研究进展.通过在 CTL表位预测原理和方法上的不断改进,候选表位肽的筛选效率将显著提高,表位疫苗的研制速度也将大大加快.     

Suppression of Autophagy in Osteocytes Mimics Skeletal Aging

Bone mass declines with age but the mechanisms responsible remain unclear. Here we demonstrate that deletion of a conditional allele for Atg7, a gene essential for autophagy, from osteocytes caused low bone mass in 6-month-old male and female mice. Cancellous bone volume and cortical thickness were decreased, and cortical porosity increased, in conditional knock-out mice compared with control littermates. These changes were associated with low osteoclast number, osteoblast number, bone formation rate, and wall width in the cancellous bone of conditional knock-out mice. In addition, oxidative stress was higher in the bones of conditional knock-out mice as measured by reactive oxygen species levels in the bone marrow and by p66^shc phosphorylation in L6 vertebra. Each of these changes has been previously demonstrated in the bones of old versus young adult mice. Thus, these results demonstrate that suppression of autophagy in osteocytes mimics, in many aspects, the impact of aging on the skeleton and suggest that a decline in autophagy with age may contribute to the low bone mass associated with aging.     

Proteome-Based Analysis of Serologically Defined Tumor-Associated Antigens in Cutaneous Lymphoma

Information on specificities of serological responses against tumor cells in cutaneous lymphoma patients is relatively restricted. To advance the knowledge of serological immune responses against and to assess the scope of tumor antigenicity of cutaneous lymphoma, 1- and 2-dimensional Western blot analyses with sera from patients were combined with proteomics-based protein identification. Testing sera from 87 cutaneous lymphoma patients by 1-dimensional Western blot analysis, 64 cases of seroreactivity against lymphoma cells were found. The positive responses were relatively weak, restricted to few antigens in each case, and heterogeneous. To identify the antigens, proteins of the mycosis fungoides cell line MyLa and primary tumor cells were separated by 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis, Western-blotted and probed with heterogeneous and autologous patient sera. The antigens were identified from silver-stained replica gels by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. 14 different antigens were assigned and identified with this proteome-serological approach. Only one, vimentin, had been reported before, the other 13 are new antigens for cutaneous lymphomas.     

Identification of Tumor-Associated Antigens from Medullary Breast Carcinoma by a Modified SEREX Approach

Medullary breast carcinoma (MBC) is a relatively rare malignancy with heavy lymphocytic infiltration that despite cytologically anaplastic features and high mitotic index has more favorable prognosis than other types of breast cancer. Lymphocytic infiltration of tumors reflects ongoing immune response against tumor antigens which could represent a great interest as potential targets for cancer immunotherapy. The search for MBC antigens by SEREX methodology has not been successful due to a very high titer of false positive clones, representing immunoglobulin genes. Here, we describe a novel approach for generating cDNA expression libraries from MBC tumor samples which are depleted of IgG cDNA clones and, therefore, are suitable for the identification of novel tumor-associated antigens (TAA) by SEREX approach. Modified methodology allowed us to isolate a panel of known and novel TAA which are currently under further investigation.     

Liposomes That Provide T-Dependent Help to Weak Antigens (T-Independent Antigens)

The design of an adjuvant for eliciting a thymus-dependent response to LPS, a well-defined thymus-independent antigen, is presented. Hybrid liposomes containing LPS and HA2 peptide from the hemagglutinin protein of influenza virus within the liposome bilayer were prepared (LPS/HA2 liposomes). The HA2 polypeptide contains epitopes recognized by T-helper lymphocytes and T-cytotoxic lymphocytes. Outbred mice immunized with LPS/HA2 liposomes produced anti-LPS-specific IgG responses. IgG subclass analysis indicated that IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3 antibodies were produced by these animals. LPS liposomes (liposomes without HA2) stimulated a T-independent response only. This was demonstrated by the detection of IgG3 but not IgG1 or IgG2 in serum of mice immunized with LPS liposomes. These results support the concept that the simultaneous incorporation into liposomes of a polypeptide with T-cell recognition sites along with a T-independent antigen can lead to the generation of cognate T-cell help for the T-independent antigen. The synthesis and characterization of a neo-lipopolysaccharide T-independent antigen for incorporation in hybrid HA2 liposomes are also presented. Findings are discussed relative to the liposome model used and implications for development of vaccines for use in humans.     

HPV16 E7抗原CTL表位拟肽设计及活性评价

人乳头瘤病毒(human papillomavirus,HPV)早期基因E7是致癌的关键基因,其表达在宫颈癌细胞癌变进程及维持癌细胞恶性表型方面发挥重要作用,已成为宫颈癌治疗的理想靶标.目前,基于HPV16 E7抗原细胞毒性T淋巴细胞(cytotoxic lymphocyte,CTL)表位设计多肽疫苗是抗宫颈癌治疗发展的重要方向,但天然CTL表位肽普遍存在体内半衰期短、激发CTL反应效果不佳等缺点.因此,本研究基于前期HPV16 E7抗原CTL表位鉴定的基础,结合多肽酶解实验结果,进行分子动力学模拟及结合自由能计算,初步筛选了3条表位模拟肽.人工合成相关待测表位肽,并利用T2细胞株测定各肽与HLA-A2分子的结合力.研究结果表明,3条表位模拟肽体外抗酶解能力较天然HPV16 E7抗原CTL表位肽均有提高,以(d)RAHYNIVTF表位模拟肽的效果最为明显.此外,(d)RAHYNIVTF表位模拟肽与HLA-A2分子的结合力也有所提高(荧光系数为2.06).以上结果表明,基于HPV16 E7抗原CTL表位模拟肽进行结构修饰有望为宫颈癌治疗性疫苗的设计奠定基础.     

Identification of a New IgE-Binding Epitope of Peanut Oleosin That Cross-Reacts with Buckwheat

Peanut and buckwheat induce a severe allergic reaction, anaphylaxis, which is considered to be mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE). We identified in this study a new IgE-binding epitope of the peanut allergen that cross-reacted with buckwheat. The phosphate-buffered saline-soluble fraction of buckwheat inhibited the binding between IgE and the peanut allergen. A cross-reactive peptide was isolated from the α-chymotrypsin hydrolysate of peanut. Based on the amino acid sequence and mass spectrometric analysis data, the peptide was identified as Ser-Asp-Gln-Thr-Arg-Thr-Gly-Tyr (SDQTRTGY); this sequence is identical to amino acids 2–9 in the N-terminal hydrophilic domain of oleosin 3 which is located on the surface of the lipid storage body. Synthetic SDQTRTGY was found to bind with IgE in the sera of all eight peanut-allergic patients tested. Since many foods of plant origin contain oleosin, the possibility of an anaphylactic cross-reaction in allergic patients should always be considered.     

Selection of Peptide Mimics of HIV-1 Epitope Recognized by Neutralizing Antibody VRC01

The ability to induce anti-HIV-1 antibodies that can neutralize a broad spectrum of viral isolates from different subtypes seems to be a key requirement for development of an effective HIV-1 vaccine. The epitopes recognized by the most potent broadly neutralizing antibodies that have been characterized are largely discontinuous. Mimetics of such conformational epitopes could be potentially used as components of a synthetic immunogen that can elicit neutralizing antibodies. Here we used phage display technology to identify peptide motifs that mimic the epitope recognized by monoclonal antibody VRC01, which is able to neutralize up to 91% of circulating primary isolates. Three rounds of biopanning were performed against 2 different phage peptide libraries for this purpose. The binding specificity of selected phage clones to monoclonal antibody VRC01 was estimated using dot blot analysis. The putative peptide mimics exposed on the surface of selected phages were analyzed for conformational and linear homology to the surface of HIV-1 gp120 fragment using computational analysis. Corresponding peptides were synthesized and checked for their ability to interfere with neutralization activity of VRC01 in a competitive inhibition assay. One of the most common peptides selected from 12-mer phage library was found to partially mimic a CD4-binding loop fragment, whereas none of the circular C7C-mer peptides was able to mimic any HIV-1 domains. However, peptides identified from both the 12-mer and C7C-mer peptide libraries showed rescue of HIV-1 infectivity in the competitive inhibition assay. The identification of epitope mimics may lead to novel immunogens capable of inducing broadly reactive neutralizing antibodies.     

多表位肽抗原诱导特异性CTL抗慢性髓性白血病细胞的体外实验研究

目的：在应用基因工程技术人工表达获得多表位BCR-ABL融合蛋白的基础上,对该融合抗原在体外诱导对自血病细胞的特异性杀伤效应进行检测,探索慢性髓性自血病（CML）免疫治疗的新途径。方法：从外周血单个核细胞培养树突细胞（DC）,以BCR-ABL融合抗原脉冲刺激DC,诱导特异性细胞毒T淋巴细胞（CTL）产生;MTT法检测CTL对白血病靶细胞的特异性杀伤活性。结果：以BCR-ABL融合抗原刺激产生的CTL能特异性抑制b3a2＋的靶细胞生长,包括K562细胞（P〈0．01）和HIJA-A2＋／b3a2＋的CML原代细胞（P〈0．05）,而对HIA-A2-或b2a2＋靶细胞无明显抑制作用。结论：设计表达的多表位BCR-ABL融合抗原能在体外诱导特异性抗CML免疫反应,抑制b3a2＋自血病细胞生长,有望为进一步的体内实验奠定基础。     

A trs20 Mutation That Mimics an SEDT‐Causing Mutation Blocks Selective and Non‐Selective Autophagy: A Model for TRAPP III Organization

TRAPP is a multisubunit complex that functions in membrane traffic. Mutations in the mammalian TRAPP protein C2 are linked to the skeletal disorder spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia tarda (SEDT) that is thought to arise from an inability to secrete procollagen from the endoplasmic reticulum. Here, we show that C2 binds to the SNARE protein Syntaxin 5 and this interaction is weakened by an SEDT‐causing missense mutation (D47Y). Interestingly, the equivalent mutation (D46Y) in the yeast C2 homolog Trs20p does not block anterograde traffic but did affect endocytosis. The trs20D46Y mutation interfered with the interaction between Trs20p and Trs85p (TRAPP III‐specific subunit), Trs120p and Trs130p (TRAPP II‐specific subunits). Size exclusion chromatography suggested that this yeast mutation destabilized the TRAPP III complex that is involved in autophagy. We further show that this mutation blocks both the selective cytosol‐to‐vacuole (cvt) pathway as well as non‐selective autophagy. We demonstrate that the apparent molecular size of the TRAPP III complex is dependent upon membranes, and that the presence of TRAPP III is dependent upon Atg9p. Finally, we demonstrate that lipidated Bet3p is enriched in TRAPP III and that lipidation increases the efficiency of autophagy. Our study suggests that Trs20p acts as an adaptor for Trs85p and Trs120p and reveals complexities in TRAPP III assembly and function. The implications of C2D47Y in SEDT are discussed .     

Epitope escape mutation and decay of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-specific CTL responses

To investigate possible mechanisms behind HIV-1 escape from CTL, we performed detailed longitudinal analysis of Gag (SLYNTVATL)- and RT (ILKEPVHGV)-specific CTL responses and plasma epitope sequences in five individuals. Among those with CTL against consensus epitope sequences, epitope mutations developed over several years, invariably followed by decay of the CTL targeting the consensus epitopes. The maturation state of the CTL varied among individuals and appeared to affect the rate of epitope mutation and CTL decay, despite similar IFN-gamma production. Escape mutations were oligoclonal, suggesting fitness constraints. The timing of escape indicated that the net selective advantage of escape mutants was slight, further underscoring the importance of understanding factors determining selective pressure and viral fitness in vivo. Our data show surprisingly consistent decay of CTL responses after epitope escape mutation and provide insight into potential mechanisms for both immune failure and shifting CTL specificities.     

Critical Role of Autophagy in the Processing of Adenovirus Capsid-Incorporated Cancer-Specific Antigens

Adenoviruses are highly immunogenic and are being examined as potential vectors for immunotherapy. Infection by oncolytic adenovirus is followed by massive autophagy in cancer cells. Here, we hypothesize that autophagy regulates the processing of adenoviral proteins for antigen presentation. To test this hypothesis, we first examined the presentation of viral antigens by infected cells using an antibody cocktail of viral capsid proteins. We found that viral antigens were processed by JNK-mediated autophagy, and that autophagy was required for their presentation. Consistent with these results, splenocytes isolated from virus-immunized mice were activated by infected cells in an MHC II-dependent manner. We then hypothesize that this mechanism can be utilized to generate an efficient cancer vaccine. To this end, we constructed an oncolytic virus encompassing an EGFRvIII cancer-specific epitope in the adenoviral fiber. Infection of cancer cells with this fiber-modified adenovirus resulted in recognition of infected cancer cells by a specific anti-EGFRvIII antibody. However, inhibition of autophagy drastically decreased the capability of the specific antibody to detect the cancer-related epitope in infected cells. Our data suggest that combination of adenoviruses with autophagy inducers may enhance the processing and presentation of cancer-specific antigens incorporated into capsid proteins.     

Characterization of a Prefusion-Specific Antibody That Recognizes a Quaternary,Cleavage-Dependent Epitope on the RSV Fusion Glycoprotein

Prevention efforts for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) have been advanced due to the recent isolation and characterization of antibodies that specifically recognize the prefusion conformation of the RSV fusion (F) glycoprotein. These potently neutralizing antibodies are in clinical development for passive prophylaxis and have also aided the design of vaccine antigens that display prefusion-specific epitopes. To date, prefusion-specific antibodies have been shown to target two antigenic sites on RSV F, but both of these sites are also present on monomeric forms of F. Here we present a structural and functional characterization of human antibody AM14, which potently neutralized laboratory strains and clinical isolates of RSV from both A and B subtypes. The crystal structure and location of escape mutations revealed that AM14 recognizes a quaternary epitope that spans two protomers and includes a region that undergoes extensive conformational changes in the pre- to postfusion F transition. Binding assays demonstrated that AM14 is unique in its specific recognition of trimeric furin-cleaved prefusion F, which is the mature form of F on infectious virions. These results demonstrate that the prefusion F trimer contains potent neutralizing epitopes not present on monomers and that AM14 should be particularly useful for characterizing the conformational state of RSV F-based vaccine antigens.     

Characterization of Neutralizing Antibodies and Identification of Neutralizing Epitope Mimics on the Clostridium botulinum Neurotoxin Type A

Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin type A (BTx-A) is known to inhibit the release of acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junctions and synapses and to cause neuroparalysis and death. In this study, we have identified two monoclonal antibodies, BT57-1 and BT150-3, which protect ICR mice against lethal doses of BTx-A challenge. The neutralizing activities for BT57-1 and BT150-3 were 10³ and 10⁴ times the 50% lethal dose, respectively. Using immunoblotting analysis, BT57-1 was recognized as a light chain and BT150-3 was recognized as a heavy chain of BTx-A. Also, applying the phage display method, we investigated the antibodies' neutralizing B-cell epitopes. These immunopositive phage clones displayed consensus motifs, Asp-Pro-Leu for BT57-1 and Cys-X-Asp-Cys for BT150. The synthetic peptide P4M (KGTFDPLQEPRT) corresponded to the phage-displayed peptide selected by BT57-1 and was able to bind the antibodies specifically. This peptide was also shown by competitive inhibition assay to be able to inhibit phage clone binding to BT57-1. Aspartic acid (D⁵) in P4M was crucial to the binding of P4M to BT57-1, since its binding activity dramatically decreased when it was changed to lysine (K⁵). Finally, immunizing mice with the selected phage clones elicited a specific humoral response against BTx-A. These results suggest that phage-displayed random-peptide libraries are useful in identifying the neutralizing epitopes of monoclonal antibodies. In the future, the identification of the neutralizing epitopes of BTx-A may provide important information for the identification of the BTx-A receptor and the design of a BTx-A vaccine.     

Potential Elucidation of a Novel CTL Epitope in HIV-1 Protease by the Protease Inhibitor Resistance Mutation L90M

The combination of host immune responses and use of antiretrovirals facilitate partial control of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection and result in delayed progression to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). Both treatment and host immunity impose selection pressures on the highly mutable HIV-1 genome resulting in antiretroviral resistance and immune escape. Researchers have shown that antiretroviral resistance mutations can shape cytotoxic T-lymphocyte immunity by altering the epitope repertoire of HIV infected cells. Here it was discovered that an important antiretroviral resistance mutation, L90M in HIV protease, occurs at lower frequencies in hosts that harbor the B*15, B*48 or A*32 human leukocyte antigen subtypes. A likely reason is the elucidation of novel epitopes by L90M. NetMHCPan predictions reveal increased affinity of the peptide spanning the HIV protease region, PR 89–97 and PR 90–99 to HLA-B*15/B*48 and HLA-A*32 respectively due to the L90M substitution. The higher affinity could increase the chance of the epitope being presented and recognized by Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and perhaps provide additional immunological pressures in the presence of antiretroviral attenuating mutations. This evidence supports the notion that knowledge of HLA allotypes in HIV infected individuals could augment antiretroviral treatment by the elucidation of epitopes due to antiretroviral resistance mutations in HIV protease.     

Establishment of HLA-DR4 Transgenic Mice for the Identification of CD4+ T Cell Epitopes of Tumor-Associated Antigens

Reports have shown that activation of tumor-specific CD4⁺ helper T (Th) cells is crucial for effective anti-tumor immunity and identification of Th-cell epitopes is critical for peptide vaccine-based cancer immunotherapy. Although computer algorithms are available to predict peptides with high binding affinity to a specific HLA class II molecule, the ability of those peptides to induce Th-cell responses must be evaluated. We have established HLA-DR4 (HLA-DRA*01:01/HLA-DRB1*04:05) transgenic mice (Tgm), since this HLA-DR allele is most frequent (13.6%) in Japanese population, to evaluate HLA-DR4-restricted Th-cell responses to tumor-associated antigen (TAA)-derived peptides predicted to bind to HLA-DR4. To avoid weak binding between mouse CD4 and HLA-DR4, Tgm were designed to express chimeric HLA-DR4/I-E^d, where I-E^d α1 and β1 domains were replaced with those from HLA-DR4. Th cells isolated from Tgm immunized with adjuvant and HLA-DR4-binding cytomegalovirus-derived peptide proliferated when stimulated with peptide-pulsed HLA-DR4-transduced mouse L cells, indicating chimeric HLA-DR4/I-E^d has equivalent antigen presenting capacity to HLA-DR4. Immunization with CDCA1_55-78 peptide, a computer algorithm-predicted HLA-DR4-binding peptide derived from TAA CDCA1, successfully induced Th-cell responses in Tgm, while immunization of HLA-DR4-binding Wilms'' tumor 1 antigen-derived peptide with identical amino acid sequence to mouse ortholog failed. This was overcome by using peptide-pulsed syngeneic bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BM-DC) followed by immunization with peptide/CFA booster. BM-DC-based immunization of KIF20A_494-517 peptide from another TAA KIF20A, with an almost identical HLA-binding core amino acid sequence to mouse ortholog, successfully induced Th-cell responses in Tgm. Notably, both CDCA1_55-78 and KIF20A_494-517 peptides induced human Th-cell responses in PBMCs from HLA-DR4-positive donors. Finally, an HLA-DR4 binding DEPDC1_191-213 peptide from a new TAA DEPDC1 overexpressed in bladder cancer induced strong Th-cell responses both in Tgm and in PBMCs from an HLA-DR4-positive donor. Thus, the HLA-DR4 Tgm combined with computer algorithm was useful for preliminary screening of candidate peptides for vaccination.