Computer-based video digitizer analysis of surface extension in maize roots

We used a video digitizer system to measure surface extension and curvature in gravistimulated primary roots of maize (Zea mays L.). Downward curvature began about 25 +/- 7 min after gravistimulation and resulted from a combination of enhanced growth along the upper surface and reduced growth along the lower surface relative to growth in vertically oriented controls. The roots curved at a rate of 1.4 +/- 0.5 degrees min-1 but the pattern of curvature varied somewhat. In about 35% of the samples the roots curved steadily downward and the rate of curvature slowed as the root neared 90 degrees. A final angle of about 90 degrees was reached 110 +/- 35 min after the start of gravistimulation. In about 65% of the samples there was a period of backward curvature (partial reversal of curvature) during the response. In some cases (about 15% of those showing a period of reverse bending) this period of backward curvature occurred before the root reached 90 degrees. Following transient backward curvature, downward curvature resumed and the root approached a final angle of about 90 degrees. In about 65% of the roots showing a period of reverse curvature, the roots curved steadily past the vertical, reaching maximum curvature about 205 +/- 65 min after gravistimulation. The direction of curvature then reversed back toward the vertical. After one or two oscillations about the vertical the roots obtained a vertical orientation and the distribution of growth within the root tip became the same as that prior to gravistimulation. The period of transient backward curvature coincided with and was evidently caused by enhancement of growth along the concave and inhibition of growth along the convex side of the curve, a pattern opposite to that prevailing in the earlier stages of downward curvature. There were periods during the gravitropic response when the normally unimodal growth-rate distribution within the elongation zone became bimodal with two peaks of rapid elongation separated by a region of reduced elongation rate. This occurred at different times on the convex and concave sides of the graviresponding root. During the period of steady downward curvature the elongation zone along the convex side extended farther toward the tip than in the vertical control. During the period of reduced rate of curvature, the zone of elongation extended farther toward the tip along the concave side of the root. The data show that the gravitropic response pattern varies with time and involves changes in localized elongation rates as well as changes in the length and position of the elongation zone. Models of root gravitropic curvature based on simple unimodal inhibition of growth along the lower side cannot account for these complex growth patterns.     

Negative phototropism of rice root and its influencing factors

Some characteristics of the rice (Oryza sativa L.) root were found in the experiment of unilaterally irradiating the roots which were planted in water: (i) All the seminal roots, adventitious roots and their branched roots bent away from light, and their curvatures ranged from 25℃ to 60℃. The curvature of adventitious root of the higher node was often larger than that of the lower node, and even larger than that of the seminal root. (ii) The negative phototropic bending of the rice root was mainly due to the larger growth increment of root-tip cells of the irradiated side compared with that of the shaded side, (iii) Root cap was the site of light perception. If root cap was shaded while the root was irradiated the root showed no negative phototropism, and the root lost the characteristic of negative phototropism when root cap was divested. Rice root could resume the characteristic of negative phototropism when the new root cap grew up, if the original cells of root cap were well protected while root ca     

玉米初生根向水性诱导优化试验研究

为了研究湿度梯度对根系向水性反应的影响,采用Takahashi and Scott于1993年创建的方法,设置以下3个试验:1)向水性诱导物不同倾斜角试验;2)根系距向水性诱导物不同距离试验;3)根尖距底部饱和K2CO3溶液不同距离试验。同时,还研究了根长和根系延伸速率对根系向水性弯曲的影响。结果表明,用饱和K2CO3溶液控制湿度时根系的向水性弯曲度明显大于纯水。随着诱导物倾斜角的增大,向水性弯曲增强。与距诱导物3 mm和6 mm相比,根系直接接触诱导物时表现出最大的向水性反应。与根尖距底部盐溶液6 cm相比,相距4 cm时向水性弯曲度增大,这些与根尖周围的湿度梯度增大有关。当根长为1.0、1.5、2.0、2.5、3.0 cm时,短根比长根表现出更大的向水性反应,这可能与其较慢的延伸速率为根系对湿度梯度的反应提供了更充足的时间有关。为了验证这个假说,用相同长度的根系、通过控制不同温度进行试验,结果表明根系的向水性弯曲随温度升高而降低。可见,玉米初生根的向水性反应受环境和根系发育阶段两方面影响。当根系相距诱导物较近、根系周围的湿度梯度较大时,根系向水性反应更强。而且,具有较小延伸速率根系的向水性反应更大。考虑到干旱条件下根系伸长慢、且土壤中湿度梯度大,因而可以认为干旱条件下根系的向水性生长在玉米吸收水分中有重要作用。同时,对根系向水性诱导方法的优化有助于其生理机制的进一步研究。     

Negative phototropism of rice root and its influencing factors

Some characteristics of the rice (Oryza sativa L.) root were found in the experiment of unilaterally irradiating the roots which were planted in water: (i) All the seminal roots, adventitious roots and their branched roots bent away from light, and their curvatures ranged from 25° to 60°. The curvature of adventitious root of the higher node was often larger than that of the lower node, and even larger than that of the seminal root, (ii) The negative phototropic bending of the rice root was mainly due to the larger growth increment of root-tip cells of the irradiated side compared with that of the shaded side, (iii) Root cap was the site of light perception. If root cap was shaded while the root was irradiated the root showed no negative phototropism, and the root lost the characteristic of negative phototropism when root cap was divested. Rice root could resume the characteristic of negative phototropism when the new root cap grew up, if the original cells of root cap were well protected while root cap was divested, (iv) The growth increment and curvature of rice root were both influenced by light intensity. Within the range of 0–100 μmol · m² -s⁻¹, the increasing of light intensity resulted in the decreasing of the growth increment and the increasing of the curvature of rice root, (v) The growth increment and the curvature reached the maximum at 30°C with the temperature treatment of 10–40°C. (vi) Blue-violet light could prominently induce the negative phototropism of rice root, while red light had no such effect. (vii) The auxin (IAA) in the solution, as a very prominent influencing factor, inhibited the growth, the negative phototropism and the gravitropism of rice root when the concentration of IAA increased. The response of negative phototropism of rice root disappeared when the concentration of IAA was above 10 mg · L⁻¹     

Root hydrotropism of an agravitropic pea mutant, ageotropum

We have partially characterized root hydrotropism of an agravitropic pea mutant, ageotropum (from Pisum sativum L. cv. Weibull's Weitor), without interference of gravitropism. Lowering the atmospheric air humidity inhibited root elongation and caused root curvature toward the moisture-saturated substrate in ageotropum pea. Removal of root tips approximately 1.5 mm in length blocked the hydrotropic response. A computer-assisted image analysis showed that the hydrotropic curvature in the roots of ageotropum pea was chiefly due to a greater inhibition of elongation on the humid side than the dry side of the roots. Similarly, gravitropic curvature of Alaska pea roots resulted from inhibition of elongation on the lower side of the horizontally placed roots, while the upper side of the roots maintained a normal growth rate. Gravitropic bending of Alaska pea roots was apparent 30 min after stimulation, whereas differential growth as well as curvature in positive root hydrotropism of ageotropum pea became visible 4–5 h after the continuous hydrostimulation. Application of 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid or ethyleneglycol-bis-( β -aminoethylether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid was inhibitory to both root hydrotropism of ageotropum pea and root gravitropism of Alaska pea. Some mutual response mechanism for both hydrotropism and gravitropism may exist in roots, although the stimulusperception mechanisms differ from one another.     

Elongation and gravitropic responses of Arabidopsis roots are regulated by brassinolide and IAA

Exogenously applied brassinolide (BL) increased both gravitropic curvature and length of primary roots of Arabidopsis at low concentration (10(-10) M), whereas at higher concentration, BL further increased gravitropic curvature while it inhibited primary root growth. BRI1-GFP plants possessing a high steady-state expression level of a brassinosteroid (BR) receptor kinase rendered the plant's responses to gravity and root growth more sensitive, while BR-insensitive mutants, bri1-301 and bak1, delayed root growth and reduced their response to the gravitropic stimulus. The stimulatory effect of BL on the root gravitropic curvature was also enhanced in auxin transport mutants, aux1-7 and pin2, relative to wild-type plants, and increasing concentration of auxin attenuated BL-induced root sensitivity to gravity. Interestingly, IAA treatment to the roots of bri1-301 and bak1 plants or of plants pretreated with a BL biosynthetic inhibitor, brassinazole, increased their sensitivity to gravity, while these treatments for the BL-hypersensitive transgenic plants, BRI1-GFP and 35S-BAK1, were less effective. Expression of a CYP79B2 gene, encoding an IAA biosynthetic enzyme, was suppressed in BL-hypersensitive plant types and enhanced in BL-insensitive or -deficient plants. In conclusion, our results indicate that BL interacts negatively with IAA in the regulation of plant gravitropic response and root growth, and its regulation is achieved partly by modulating biosynthetic pathways of the counterpart hormone.     

Effect of mutual shading on the emergence of nodal roots and the root/shoot ratio of maize

The effect of mutual shading on the root/shoot ratio and on the number of nodal roots of maize was studied. Plants of two varieties (Dea and LG2281) were grown in individual pots of 9 L, at three plant densities: 7.5, 11 and 15 plants m^–2. A control experiment was carried out in order to study if root growth was affected by the small size of the pots. Maize plants (cv Dea) were grown at a low plant density (7.5 plants m^–2) in pots of two different volumes (9 and 25 L respectively). In both experiments plants were watered every two hours with a nutrient solution. Some plants were sampled at five dates in the main experiment and the following data were recorded: foliar stage; root, stem and leaf dry weight; number of root primordia and number of emerged roots per phytomer. The final sampling date occurred at silking.Results of the control experiment showed that the root biomass was lower in small pots but the number of nodal roots per phytomer was not affected.Results of the main experiment showed that the total plant biomass and the root/shoot ratio were lower at high plant density. The number of emerged roots was strongly reduced on the upper phytomer (P₈). This reduction was mainly due to a lower percentage of root primordia which elongated. A proposed interpretation is that the number of roots which emerge on upper phytomers is controlled by carbohydrate availability.     

Localized supply of phosphorus induces root morphological and architectural changes of rice in split and stratified soil cultures

A localized supply of phosphorus may affect root morphology and architecture, and thereby affect phosphorus uptake by rice plants. In the present study, we attempted to test this hypothesis using two rice cultivars representing upland and lowland ecotypes grown in specially designed split and stratified soil cultures with a low-phosphorus red soil. Our data indicate that a localized supply of phosphorus increased both total root length and root fineness, particularly in the high-phosphorus zone. In split culture, plants roots tended to preferentially grow on the high-phosphorus zone, with about 70–75% of the total root length allocated to the high-phosphorus compartment. The total root length on the high-phosphorus side in the split-phosphorus treatment was significantly longer than that in the homogenously high-phosphorus treatment, implying that a phosphorus-deficiency signal from the low-phosphorus side may stimulate the growth of the roots located in the high-phosphorus zone. In stratified soil culture, changes in root morphology and architecture were also observed as indicated by increased total root length, root fineness and relative root allocation in the high-phosphorus layers, again suggesting altered root morphology and preferential root proliferation in the high-phosphorus regions. The induced changes in root morphology and architecture by localized phosphorus supply may have both physiological significance and practical implications in that plants can meet the demand for phosphorus with parts of the roots reaching the high-phosphorus zone, hence localized fertilization methods such as side dressing or banded application of phosphorus fertilizers may both minimize phosphorus fixation by the soil and increase phosphorus uptake efficiency from the fertilizers.     

Correlations between Gravitropic Curvature and Auxin Movement across Gravistimulated Roots of Zea mays

We compared the kinetics of auxin redistribution across the caps of primary roots of 2-day-old maize (Zea mays, cv Merit) seedlings with the time course of gravitropic curvature. [³H] indoleacetic acid was applied to one side of the cap in an agar donor and radioactivity moving across the cap was collected in an agar receiver applied to the opposite side. Upon gravistimulation the roots first curved upward slightly, then returned to the horizontal and began curving downward, reaching a final angle of about 67°. Movement of label across the caps of gravistimulated roots was asymmetric with preferential downward movement (ratio downward/upward = ca. 1.6, radioactivity collected during the 90 min following beginning of gravistimulation). There was a close correlation between the development of asymmetric auxin movement across the root cap and the rate of curvature, with both values increasing to a maximum and then declining as the roots approached the final angle of curvature. In roots preadapted to gravity (alternate brief stimulation on opposite flanks over a period of 1 hour) the initial phase of upward curvature was eliminated and downward bending began earlier than for controls. The correlation between asymmetric auxin movement and the kinetics of curvature also held in comparisons between control and preadapted roots. Both downward auxin transport asymmetry and downward curvature occurred earlier in preadapted roots than in controls. These findings are consistent with suggestions that the root cap is not only the site of perception but also the location of the initial redistribution of effectors that ultimately leads to curvature.     

Induction of Curvature in Maize Roots by Calcium or by Thigmostimulation : Role of the Postmitotic Isodiametric Growth Zone

We examined the response of primary roots of maize (Zea mays L. cv Merit) to unilateral application of calcium with particular attention to the site of application, the dependence on growth rate, and possible contributions of thigmotropic stimulation during application. Unilateral application of agar to the root cap induced negative curvature whether or not the agar contained calcium. This apparent thigmotropic response was enhanced by including calcium in the agar. Curvature away from objects applied unilaterally to the extreme root tip occurred both in intact and detipped roots. When agar containing calcium chloride was applied to one side of the postmitotic isodiametric growth zone (a region between the apical meristem and the elongation zone), the root curved toward the side of application. This response could not be induced by plain agar. We conclude that curvature away from calcium applied to the root tip results from a thigmotropic response to stimulation during application. In contrast, curvature toward calcium applied to the postmitotic isodiametric growth zone results from direct calcium-induced inhibition of growth.     

Effects of Cations on Hormone Transport in Primary Roots of Zea mays

We examined the influence of aluminum and calcium (and certain other cations) on hormone transport in corn roots. When aluminum was applied unilaterally to the caps of 15 mm apical root sections the roots curved strongly away from the aluminum. When aluminum was applied unilaterally to the cap and ³H-indole-3-acetic acid was applied to the basal cut surface twice as much radioactivity (assumed to be IAA) accumulated on the concave side of the curved root as on the convex side. Auxin transport in the apical region of intact roots was preferentially basipetal, with a polarity (basipetal transport divided by acropetal transport) of 6.3. In decapped 5 mm apical root segments, auxin transport was acropetally polar (polarity = 0.63). Application of aluminum to the root cap strongly promoted acropetal transport of auxin reducing polarity from 6.3 to 2.1. Application of calcium to the root cap enhanced basipetal movement of auxin, increasing polarity from 6.3 to 7.6. Application of the calcium chelator, ethylene-glycol-bis-(β-aminoethylether)-N,N,N′, N′-tetraacetic acid, greatly decreased basipetal auxin movement, reducing polarity from 6.3 to 3.7. Transport of label after application of tritiated abscisic acid showed no polarity and was not affected by calcium or aluminum. The results indicate that the root cap is particularly important in maintaining basipetal polarity of auxin transport in primary roots of corn. The induction of root curvature by unilateral application of aluminum or calcium to root caps is likely to result from localized effects of these ions on auxin transport. The findings are discussed relative to the possible role of calcium redistribution in the gravitropic curvature of roots and the possibility of calmodulin involvement in the action of calcium and aluminum on auxin transport.     

Novel software for analysis of root gravitropism: comparative response patterns of Arabidopsis wild-type and axr1 seedlings

In an earlier study (Evans, Ishikawa & Estelle 1994, Planta 194, 215-222) we used a video digitizer system to compare the kinetics of auxin action on root elongation in wild-type seedlings and seedlings of auxin response mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. We have since modified the system software to allow determination of elongation on opposite sides of vertical or gravistimulated roots and to allow continuous measurement of the angle of orientation of sequential subsections of the root during the response. We used this technology to compare the patterns of differential growth that generate curvature in roots of the Columbia ecotype and in the mutants axr1-3, axr1-12 and axr2, which show reduced gravitropic responsiveness and reduced sensitivity to inhibition by auxin. The pattern of differential growth during gravitropism differed in roots of wild-type and axr1 seedlings. In wild-type roots, initial curvature resulted from differential inhibition of elongation in the distal elongation zone (DEZ). This was followed by an acceleration of elongation along the top side of the DEZ. In roots of axr1-3, curvature resulted from differential stimulation of elongation whereas in roots of axr1-12 the response was variable. Roots of axr2 did not exhibit gravitropic curvature. The observation that the pattern of differential growth causing curvature is dramatically altered by a change in sensitivity to auxin is consistent with the classical Cholodny-Went theory of gravitropism which maintains that differential growth patterns induced by gravistimulation are mediated primarily by gravi-induced shifts in auxin distribution. The new technology introduced with this report allows automated determination of stimulus response patterns in the small but experimentally popular roots of Arabidopsis.     

Importance of internal hydraulic redistribution for prolonging the lifespan of roots in dry soil

Redistribution of water within plants could mitigate drought stress of roots in zones of low soil moisture. Plant internal redistribution of water from regions of high soil moisture to roots in dry soil occurs during periods of low evaporative demand. Using minirhizotrons, we observed similar lifespans of roots in wet and dry soil for the grapevine 'Merlot' (Vitis vinifera) on the rootstock 101-14 Millardet de Gramanet (Vitis riparia x Vitis rupestris) in a Napa County, California vineyard. We hypothesized that hydraulic redistribution would prevent an appreciable reduction in root water potential and would contribute to prolonged root survivorship in dry soil zones. In a greenhouse study that tested this hypothesis, grapevine root systems were divided using split pots and were grown for 6 months. With thermocouple psychrometers, we measured water potentials of roots of the same plant in both wet and dry soil under three treatments: control (C), 24 h light + supplemental water (LW) and 24 h light only (L). Similar to the field results, roots in the dry side of split pots had similar survivorship as roots in the wet side of the split pots (P = 0.136) in the C treatment. In contrast, reduced root survivorship was directly associated with plants in which hydraulic redistribution was experimentally reduced by 24 h light. Dry-side roots of plants in the LW treatment lived half as long as the roots in the wet soil despite being provided with supplemental water (P < 0.0004). Additionally, pre-dawn water potentials of roots in dry soil under 24 h of illumination (L and LW) exhibited values nearly twice as negative as those of C plants (P = 0.034). Estimates of root membrane integrity using electrolyte leakage were consistent with patterns of root survivorship. Plants in which nocturnal hydraulic redistribution was reduced exhibited more than twice the amount of electrolyte leakage in dry roots compared to those in wet soil of the same plant. Our study demonstrates that besides a number of ecological advantages to protecting tissues against desiccation, internal hydraulic redistribution of water is a mechanism consistent with extended root survivorship in dry soils.     

Graviresponsiveness of surgically altered primary roots of Zea mays

We examined the gravitropic responses of surgically altered primary roots of Zea mays to determine the route by which gravitropic inhibitors move from the root tip to the elongating zone. Horizontally oriented roots, from which a 1-mm-wide girdle of epidermis plus 2-10 layers of cortex were removed from the apex of the elongating zone, curve downward. However, curvature occurred only apical to the girdle. Filling the girdle with mucilage-like material transmits curvature beyond the girdle. Vertically oriented roots with a half-girdle' (i.e. the epidermis and 2-10 layers of the cortex removed from half of the circumference of the apex of the elongating zone) curve away from the girdle. Inserting the half-girdle at the base of the elongating zone induces curvature towards the girdle. Filling the half-circumference girdles with mucilage-like material reduced curvature significantly. Stripping the epidermis and outer 2-5 layers of cortex from the terminal 1.5 cm of one side of a primary root induces curvature towards the cut, irrespective of the root's orientation to gravity. This effect is not due to desiccation since treated roots submerged in water also curved towards their cut surface. Coating a root's cut surface with a mucilage-like substance minimizes curvature. These results suggest that the outer cell-layers of the root, especially the epidermis, play an important role in root gravicurvature, and the gravitropic signals emanating from the root tip can move apoplastically through mucilage.     

Lateral root emission in woody taproots of Fraxinus ornus L.

Abstract

We applied environmental stresses, namely dehydration, pruning and bending, to woody taproots of Fraxinus ornus L. in order to: (i) identify a method that could be applied in routine studies of lateral root development from a secondary structure; and (ii) carry out anatomical investigations to identify the tissue involved in the recruitment of lateral root mother cells (LRMC). We found that all three methods induce the formation of new lateral roots from a woody parental root. However, bending stress considerably reduced the zone of the woody parental root (the curvature) for analysis when studying the process of emission of a new lateral root. The trace left by a new lateral root in the taproot secondary xylem forms a V-shaped insertion zone that starts in contact with a growth ring and enlarges toward the periphery. This type of insertion zone suggests that the vascular cambium is the tissue-source of initials that produce the root primordium of a new lateral root. In the case of root bending, the emission of a new lateral root occurs also in the convex side of the curvature and is preceded by the formation, at the same site, of a small amount of reaction wood. Thus, reaction wood and lateral root emission are two aspects of the same response mechanism to bending. Consequently, anatomical and cytological studies of lateral root formation should focus on this part of the woody taproot. By peeling off the bark at this site, one has direct access to the underlying living tissues and can thus investigate lateral root formation also at a biochemical and molecular level.     

Effect of indoleacetic acid,abscisic acid,root tips and coleoptile tips on growth and curvature of maize roots

The effect of externally applied indoleacetic acid (IAA) and abscisic acid (ABA) on the growth of roots of Zea mays L. was measured. Donor blocks of agar with IAA or ABA were placed laterally on the roots and root curvature was measured. When IAA was applied to vertical roots, a curvature directed toward the donor block was observed. This curvature corresponded to a growth inhibition at the side of the root where the donor was applied. When IAA was applied to horizontal roots from the upper side, normal geotropic downward bending was delayed or totally inhibited. The extent of retardation and the inhibition of curvature were found to depend on the concentration of IAA in the donor block. ABA neither induced curvature in vertical roots nor inhibited geotropic curvature in horizontal roots; thus the growth of roots was not inhibited by ABA. However, when, instead of donor blocks, root tips or coleoptile tips were placed onto vertical roots, a curvature of the roots was observed.Abbreviations ABA abscisic acid - IAA 3-indoleacetic acid     

Plant injury due to oxygen deficiency in the root environment of soilless culture: A review

The deficiency of oxygen concentration in root environment linked to waterlogging conditions caused important injuries for plants. These effects could be reproduced by oxygen deficient nutrient solution. This bibliographical synthesis has been centered on experimental results obtained on plants cultivated in soilless culture. This review paper presents a methodology used to study oxygen depletion in a nutrient solution and to calculate root respiration rates. The main factors influencing root respiration are reviewed as well as the consequences of oxygen deficiency on roots and shoots functioning. This study would not be complete without some information on the main mechanisms of plant adaptation to oxygen deficiency.     

Collection of Gravitropic Effectors from Mucilage of Electrotropically-stimulated Roots of Zea mays L.

We placed agar blocks adjacent to tips of electrotropicallystimulated primary roots of Zea mays. Blocks placed adjacentto the anode-side of the roots for 3 h induced significant curvaturewhen subsequently placed asymmetrically on tips of vertically-orientedroots. Curvature was always toward the side of the root ontowhich the agar block was placed. Agar blocks not contactingroots and blocks placed adjacent to the cathode-side of electrotropicallystimulated roots did not induce significant curvature when placedasymmetrically on tips of vertically-oriented roots. Atomicabsorption spectrophotometry indicated that blocks adjacentto the anode-side of electrotropically-stimulated roots containedsignificantly more calcium than (1) blocks not contacting roots,and (2) blocks contacting the cathode-side of roots. These resultsdemonstrate the presence of a gradient of endogenous Ca in mucilageof electrotropically-stimulated roots (i.e. roots undergoinggravitropic-like curvature). Zea mays, corn, mucilage, root gravitropism, electrotropism     

Root growth of wetland plants with different root types

A wastewater culture system was designed to study the root growth of eight species of wetland plants with two different root types. The system included a plastic barrel for holding the wastewater and a foam plate for holding the plant. The results indicated that the root growth of the plants with fibril roots was faster than that of the plants with rhizomatic roots. The species with fibril roots had higher root number (1349 per plant) than species with rhizomatic roots (549 per plant) after ten weeks of cultivation. The average root biomass of plants with fibril roots was 11.3 g per plant, whereas that of plants with rhizomatic roots was 7.4 g per plant. Fine root biomass of diameter ≤ 1 mm constituted 51.9% of the total root biomass in plants with fibril roots, whereas it accounted for only 25.1% in plants with rhizomatic roots. The root surface area of the plants with fibril roots (6933 cm² per plant) was markedly larger than that of the species with rhizomatic roots (1897 cm² per plant). The species with rhizomatic roots showed a longer root lifespan (46.6 days) than those with fibril roots (34.8 days).     

Spatial separation of light perception and growth response in maize root phototropism

Although the effects of gravity on root growth are well known and interactions between light and gravity have been reported, details of root phototropic responses are less documented. We used high-resolution image analysis to study phototropism in primary roots of Zea mays L. Similar to the location of perception in gravitropism, the perception of light was localized in the root cap. Phototropic curvature away from the light, on the other hand, developed in the central elongation zone, more basal than the site of initiation of gravitropic curvature. The phototropic curvature saturated at approximately 10 micromoles m-2 s-1 blue light with a peak curvature of 29 +/- 4 degrees, in part due to induction of positive gravitropism following displacement of the root tip from vertical during negative phototropism. However, at higher fluence rates, development of phototropic curvature is arrested even if gravitropism is avoided by maintaining the root cap vertically using a rotating feedback system. Thus continuous illumination can cause adaptation in the signalling pathway of the phototropic response in roots.