The biogeography of Gunnera L.: vicariance and dispersal

Aim The genus Gunnera is distributed in South America, Africa and the Australasian region, a few species reaching Hawaii and southern Mexico in the North. A cladogram was used to (1) discuss the biogeography of Gunnera and (2) subsequently compare this biogeographical pattern with the geological history of continents and the patterns reported for other Southern Hemisphere organisms. Location Africa, northern South America, southern South America, Tasmania, New Zealand, New Guinea/Malaya, Hawaii, North America, Antarctica. Methods A phylogenetic analysis of twenty‐six species of Gunnera combining morphological characters and new as well as published sequences of the ITS region, rbcL and the rps16 intron, was used to interpret the biogeographical patterns in Gunnera. Vicariance was applied in the first place and dispersal was only assumed as a second best explanation. Results The Uruguayan/Brazilian Gunnera herteri Osten (subgenus Ostenigunnera Mattfeld) is sister to the rest of the genus, followed sequentially upwards by the African G. perpensa L. (subgenus Gunnera), in turn sister to all other, American and Australasian, species. These are divided into two clades, one containing American/Hawaiian species, the other containing all Australasian species. Within the Australasian clade, G. macrophylla Blume (subgenus Pseudogunnera Schindler), occurring in New Guinea and Malaya, is sister to a clade including the species from New Zealand and Tasmania (subgenus Milligania Schindler). The southern South American subgenus Misandra Schindler is sister to a clade containing the remaining American, as well as the Hawaiian species (subgenus Panke Schindler). Within subgenus Panke, G. mexicana Brandegee, the only North American species in the genus, is sister to a clade wherein the Hawaiian species are basal to all south and central American taxa. Main conclusions According to the cladogram, South America appears in two places, suggesting an historical explanation for northern South America to be separate from southern South America. Following a well‐known biogeographical pattern of vicariance, Africa is the sister area to the combined southern South America/Australasian clade. Within the Australasian clade, New Zealand is more closely related to New Guinea/Malaya than to southern South America, a pattern found in other plant cladograms, contradictory to some of the patterns supported by animal clades and by the geological hypothesis, respectively. The position of the Tasmanian G. cordifolia, nested within the New Zealand clade indicates dispersal of this species to Tasmania. The position of G. mexicana, the only North American species, as sister to the remaining species of subgenus Panke together with the subsequent sister relation between Hawaii and southern South America, may reflect a North American origin of Panke and a recolonization of South America from the north. This is in agreement with the early North American fossil record of Gunnera and the apparent young age of the South American clade.     

Chloroplast-DNA restriction site analysis in the genus Bromus (Poaceae)

Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) restriction site variation was examined in 32 species, representing five subgenera, of Bromus (Poaceae). Thirty-seven phylogenetically informative restriction sites were detected. Cladistic analysis of the restriction site data produced a single most-parsimonious tree of 50 steps. The cladogram indicated two major clades within the genus. One clade included B. trinii of subgenus Neobromus and species of subgenus Ceratochloa. The other was composed of subgenera Festucaria, Stenobromus, and Bromus. Within the second clade, species of subgenus Festucaria appeared in three lineages. The second clade also contained an assemblage of species belonging to subgenera Stenobromus and Bromus in a separate lineage. There was very little resolution of relationships in this assemblage since several species appeared individually in separate lineages. The cpDNA phylogenetic hypothesis did not separate species of subgenera Stenobromus and Bromus into well-defined clades as circumscribed by morphology and cytogenetics. The cpDNA tree is in agreement with the phylogenetic scheme based on traditional data in that: 1) subgenera Neobromus and Ceratochloa were the first to diverge, while Bromus and Stenobromus diverged later; 2) within the genus Bromus species with small chromosomes are ancestral; and 3) subgenera Bromus and Stenobromus probably originated from similar ancestors as Festucaria. The tree based on cpDNA data does not support that: 1) subgenera Neobromus and Ceratochloa did not have a common origin; 2) subgenus Festucaria is monophyletic; and 3) subgenera Stenobromus and Bromus are distinct entities. The mean nucleotide sequence divergence values between pairs of subgenera ranged from p = 0.0 to 0.9. These values suggest that cpDNA evolution in Bromus is slow.     

Molecular phylogeny of black flies (Diptera: Simuliidae) from Thailand, using ITS2 rDNA

The sequences of the second internal transcribed spacer (ITS2) of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) were determined for 40 black fly species from Thailand, belonging to 4 subgenera of the genus Simulium, namely Gomphostilbia (12 species), Nevermannia (5 species), Montisimulium (1 species), Simulium sensu stricto (21 species), and an unknown subgenus with one species (Simulium baimaii). The length of the ITS2 ranged from 247 to 308 bp. All black fly species had high AT content, ranging from 71 to 83.8%. Intraindividual variation (clonal variation) occurred in 13 species, ranging from 0.3 to 1.1%. Large intrapopulation and interpopulation heterogeneities exist in S. feuerboni from the same and different locations in Doi Inthanon National Park, northern Thailand. Phylogenetic relationships among 40 black fly species were examined using PAUP (version 4.0b10) and MrBAYS (version 3.0B4). The topology of the trees revealed two major monophyletic clades. The subgenus Simulium and Simulium baimaii were placed in the first monophyletic clade, whereas the subgenera Nevermannia + Montisimulium were placed as the sister group to the subgenus Gomphostilbia in the second monophyletic clade. Our results suggest that S. baimaii belongs to the malyschevi-group or variegatum-group in the subgenus Simulium. The molecular phylogeny generally agrees with existing morphology-based phylogenies.     

Phylogenetic relationship in Fritillaria spp. of Iran inferred from ribosomal ITS and chloroplast trnL-trnF sequence data

The genus Fritillaria embraces up to 165 taxa in the family Liliaceae, most of which are of high medicinal and ornamental value and importance. In this study, 44 specimens of the genus representing 9 species were collected from their natural habitats located in 10 provinces of Iran. Phylogenetic analysis was performed based on DNA sequences of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) of the nuclear ribosomal cistron and the trnL-trnF regions. The phylogeny was constructed using the neighbor joining inference method. Results indicate that the examined samples were evidently diverged into 2 distinct clades. Members of the subgenera Fritillaria and Rhinopetalum formed one clade while the other clade contained the subgenera Theresia and Petilium. There can be seen a high degree of similarity between the only yellow-colored crown imperial specimen and the red-colored specimens. The endemic species of Fritillaria straussii, Fritillaria zagrica and Fritillaria kotschyana which their status within the subgenera known in the genus Fritillaria has been remained undefined, fell into the subgenus Fritillaria. The clades also had relatively reasonable distribution patterns based on the genetic structure, geographical conditions and climate specifications. This study revealed the feasibility of the ITS and trnL-trnF DNA sequence for phylogeny of the genus Fritillaria. This is the first phylogenetic analysis of Fritillaria spp. in Iran.     

Veronica: Chemical characters for the support of phylogenetic relationships based on nuclear ribosomal and plastid DNA sequence data

Molecular phylogenetic analyses have revealed many relationships in Veronica (Plantaginaceae) never anticipated before. However, phytochemical characters show good congruence with DNA-based analyses. We have analysed a combined data set of 49 species and subspecies derived from the nuclear ribosomal ITS-region (18 new sequences) and the plastid trnL-F region (12 new sequences) of Veronica emphasizing subgenera Chamaedrys and Pocilla and separate analyses of subgenera Pentasepalae (ITS only) and Pseudolysimachium. Results for subgenus Chamaedrys show that European and Asian perennial species are monophyletic sister groups with the annual species consecutive sisters to them. All species of Veronica that contain cornoside are found in this subgenus, although some species seem to have secondarily lost the ability to produce this compound. Subgenera Pocilla and Pentasepalae are well supported sister groups characterized by the occurrence of 8-hydroxyflavones. The traditional subsection Biloba of subgenus Pocilla is biphyletic with Veronica intercedens being clearly separate from the rest of the group. This result is mirrored by the unusual phytochemical arsenal of V. intercedens, which is the only species in the genus analysed to date to contain melittoside and globularifolin. Subgenus Pentasepalae appears to be a clade of diverse lineages from southwestern Asia and a single European clade. Species shown to have 6-hydroxyflavones do not form a monophyletic group. Subgenus Pseudolysimachium seems to have originated in Eastern Asia. 6-Hydroxyflavones acylated with phenolic acids are common in this subgenus but may have originated only later in the evolution of the group. Possible chemotaxonomic markers for other groups are discussed.     

Phylogenetic status of Xylaria subgenus Pseudoxylaria among taxa of the subfamily Xylarioideae (Xylariaceae) and phylogeny of the taxa involved in the subfamily

To infer the phylogenetic relationships of Xylaria species associated with termite nests within the genus Xylaria and among genera of the subfamily Xylarioideae, β-tubulin, RPB2, and α-actin sequences of 131 cultures of 114 species from Xylaria and 11 other genera of the subfamily were analyzed. These 11 genera included Astrocystis, Amphirosellinia, Discoxylaria, Entoleuca, Euepixylon, Kretzschmaria, Nemania, Podosordaria, Poronia, Rosellinia, and Stilbohypoxylon. We showed that Xylaria species were distributed among three major clades, TE, HY, and PO, with clade TE—an equivalent of the subgenus Pseudoxylaria—encompassing exclusively those species associated with termite nests and the other two clades containing those associated with substrates other than termite nests. Xylaria appears to be a paraphyletic genus, with most of the 11 genera submerged within it. Podosordaria and Poronia, which formed a distinct clade, apparently diverged from Xylaria and the other genera early. Species of Entoleuca, Euepixylon, Nemania, and Rosellinia constituted clade NR, a major clade sister to clade PO, while those of Kretzschmaria were inserted within clade HY and those of Astrocystis, Amphirosellinia, Discoxylaria, and Stilbohypoxylon were within clade PO.     

Reconsideration of anopheline mosquito phylogeny (Diptera: Culicidae: Anophelinae) based on morphological data

The phylogeny of anopheline mosquitoes (Culicidae: Anophelinae) is re‐examined using morphological data derived from adults, fourth‐instar larvae and pupae. Based on the data set of Sallum et al. (2000), we add some previously missing data and simplify and recode characters to eliminate ambiguities and more accurately reflect homologies, with special emphasis on characters of the male genitalia that provide the main criteria for the subgeneric classification of genus Anopheles. The principal aim of the study is to assess objectively the phylogenetic relationships and classification of two taxa not included by Sallum et al. (2000): Anopheles corethroides, a representative of the Australasian Stigmaticus Group, and An. kyondawensis, an unusual Oriental species whose adult and pupal stages were only recently discovered. The revised data set consists of 167 characters for 66 species representing the three traditionally recognised genera of Anophelinae, the six traditionally accepted subgenera of genus Anopheles and all informal series and most species groups of subgenera Anopheles, Cellia and Nyssorhynchus. The data are analysed using equal weighting (EW) and implied weighting (IW). Analysis under EW generates a strict consensus tree with principal lineages consistent with those reported by Sallum et al. (2000). Analysis under IW supports the monophyly of Anophelinae, the basal position of Chagasia, the monophyly of subgenera Cellia, Kerteszia and Nyssorhynchus, and the sister relationship of Kerteszia + Nyssorhynchus, but otherwise yields relationships that differ significantly in one respect or another from those obtained in all previous analyses of both morphological and molecular data. Subgenus Anopheles is arrayed as a polyphyletic lineage basal to a monophyletic clade comprising the Neotropical Kerteszia + Nyssorhynchus and the Old World Cellia in a sister‐group relationship. Bironella, Lophopodomyia and Stethomyia are firmly nested within subgenus Anopheles, which would nevertheless still be paraphyletic if these taxa were subsumed within it. Anopheles kyondawensis is well supported as the sister group of Bironella + all other Anopheles. Bironella, Stethomyia, An. corethroides and several other Anopheles clades are each strongly supported in a pectinate series of relationships, terminating in the clade comprising subgenera Cellia, Kerteszia and Nyssorhynchus. These relationships and other aspects of the phylogeny are discussed in relation to the formal and informal classification of genus Anopheles.     

Morphometric analysis of six Gerbillus species (Rodentia,Gerbillinae) from Tunisia

Size and shape changes in the skull of the genus Gerbillus were investigated using geometric morphometrics. Six species from Tunisia were studied (G. gerbillus, G. campestris, G. nanus, G. tarabuli, G. simoni and G. latastei). Statistical analyses of shape variability allowed us to discriminate three morphological groups which are congruent with the three groups suggested by previous morphological and molecular studies. However, our results contrast with previous molecular investigations. In fact, according to results obtained by the use of principal component analysis, canonical variate analysis and UPGMA, we found a higher degree of divergence between the subgenus Dipodillus and the other two subgenera Gerbillus and Hendecapleura. This fact suggests that the morphometric differences observed among species within the genus Gerbillus are not mainly related to phylogeny. To reconciliate the molecular and morphological approaches, we propose a hypothesis of differential rates of phenotypic evolution in the genus Gerbillus. In this view, the species belonging to the subgenus Dipodillus evolved apomorphic features of the skull likely related to a higher degree of habitat specialization. By contrast, the more generalist Gerbillus and Hendecapleura subgenera show less differentiated plesiomorphic morphology.     

Stem anatomy of Philodendron Schott (Araceae) and its contribution to the systematics of the genus

Previous morphological analysis has indicated that subgenus Meconostigma was the basal group of the genus and sister group of a clade formed by subgenera Philodendron and Pteromischum. However, recent molecular analysis suggests Pteromischum is the sister group of the clade Philodendron and Meconostigma. The objective of this work was to anatomically describe the stem of Philodendron, searching for possible synapomorphies for the three currently accepted subgenera, and thus give support to one of the two phylogenetic hypotheses, and to contribute new and updated information about characters relevant to the taxonomy of the group. Anatomical data were obtained from 14 species of Philodendron. The main conclusions of our study were recognition of a sclerified hypodermis and storied cork in Philodendron and verification of the absence of amphivasal bundles, the presence of which was previously suggested for the genus by French and Tomlinson. The presence of a branched root vascular plexus in Meconostigma and Philodendron gives support to the phylogenetic hypothesis in which those two subgenera form a monophyletic clade. The unistratified and sclerified hypodermis, only simple vascular bundles within the periphery of the central cylinder, and a connection through a fibrous sheath between them were considered apomorphic characters of Pteromischum.     

Phylogenetic relationships within the genus Sargassum (Fucales, Phaeophyceae), inferred from ITS-2 nrDNA, with an emphasis on the taxonomic subdivision of the genus

Sequences from the ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer‐2 (ITS‐2) were compared among species of Sargassaceae including the genera Sargassum and Hizikia. Species of different subgenera and sections of Sargassum were used to assess the taxonomic relationships within the genus, especially the subdivisions of the subgenus Bactrophycus. Sequences were aligned in accordance with their common secondary structure. Phylogenetic trees were constructed using neighbor‐joining, maximum likelihood and maximum parsimony methods with three species of Turbinaria as outgroups. The resulting phylogenetic trees showed that the genus Sargassum is divided into three clades corresponding to the subgenera Phyllotrichia, Sargassum and Bactrophycus. This last subgenus is further divided into four distinct groups: a Spongocarpus clade, a Teretia clade, a Hizikia clade, and a Halochloa/ Repentia clade. The position of the section Phyllo‐cystae, excluded from the subgenus Bactrophycus and included within the subgenus Sargassum is once again confirmed by the present study. Current results strongly support the assignation of Hizikia fusiformis to the genus Sargassum. Based on morphological differences and a distinct position in the molecular trees, Hizikia should be recognized as a section in the subgenus Bactrophycus so that Hizikia (Okamura) Yoshida, stat. nov. is proposed. A remarkably low divergence of ITS‐2 sequences was observed for the species in the sections Repentia and Halochloa, suggesting very recent radiation of these species. The subgenus Sargassum is divided into three clades corresponding to the three known sections: Acanthocarpicae, Malacocarpicae and Zygocarpicae, previously recognized by the morphology of receptacles. The position of Sargassum duplicatum, S. carpophyllum, S.yendoi, S. piluliferum and S. patens within the subgenus Sargassum is discussed.     

Molecular phylogeny of Malagasy poison frogs,genus Mantella (Anura: Mantellidae): homoplastic evolution of colour pattern in aposematic amphibians

We studied the evolution of colour pattern in Malagasy poison frogs, genus Mantella, a group of diurnal and toxic frogs endemic to Madagascar. Based on a phylogeny reconstructed using 1130 bp of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene, the genus can be divided into five species groups. Within some of these groups, interspecific genetic divergences were very low (1.2–2.8% sequence divergence) while colour patterns were markedly different. In contrast, Mantella madagascariensis and M. baroni, two species which show extremely similar dorsal coloration patterns, were not included in the same clade. This conclusion was supported by high bootstrap values and by significant rejection of alternative topologies using KH-tests. Analysis of colour patterns and tentative reconstruction of ancestral states yielded five character states shared by these two species but not by their respective sister species, M. aurantiaca and M. nigricans. Considering these detailed similarities as symplesiomorphic therefore requires the assumption of multiple reversals in other species, whereas a homoplastic colour evolution in the sympatric M. madagascariensis andM. baroni appears as most parsimonious. This parallelism may have been triggered by MÜllerian mimicry. However, additional data is necessary to support this hypothesis.     

Phylogenetic relationships within Plantago (Plantaginaceae): evidence from nuclear ribosomal ITS and plastid trnL-F sequence data

A molecular phylogenetic study of Plantago L. (Plantaginaceae) analysed nucleotide variation in the internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal and plastid trnL-F regions. Included are 57 Plantago species, with two Aragoa species as the ingroup and three Veronica species as the outgroup. Phylogenetic analysis using maximum parsimony identified five major clades, corresponding to the taxonomic groups Plantago subgenera Plantago, Coronopus, Psyllium, Littorella and Bougueria . Aragoa is sister to genus Plantago . Plantago subgenus Littorella is sister to the other subgenera of Plantago . The results are in general correlated with a morphological phylogenetic study and iridoid glucoside patterns, but Plantago subgenus Albicans is paraphyletic and should be included in Plantago subgenus Psyllium sensu lato to obtain a monophyletic clade with six sections. Plantago section Hymenopsyllium is more closely related to section Gnaphaloides than to section Albicans . Plantago subgenus Bougueria is sister to subgenus Psyllium s.l. section Coronopus in Plantago subgenus Coronopus is subdivided in two series. Only some of the sections can be resolved into series. DNA variation within genus Plantago is high, a result that would not have been predicted on the basis of morphology, which is relatively stereotyped. If we calibrate a molecular clock based on the divergence of P. stauntoni , endemic to New Amsterdam in the southern Indian Ocean, we calculate the time of the split between Plantago and Aragoa to be 7.1 million years ago, which is congruent with the fossil record.  © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 139 , 323–338.     

Phylogeny and floral hosts of a predominantly pollen generalist group of mason bees (Megachilidae: Osmiini)

Within the genus Osmia, the three subgenera Osmia, Monosmia, and Orientosmia form a closely‐related group of predominantly pollen generalist (‘polylectic’) mason bees. Despite the great scientific and economic interest in several species of this clade, which are promoted commercially for orchard pollination, their phylogenetic relationships remain poorly understood. We inferred the phylogeny of 21 Osmia species belonging to this clade by applying Bayesian and maximum likelihood methods based on five genes and morphology. Because our results revealed paraphyly of the largest subgenus (Osmia s.s.), we synonymized Monosmia and Orientosmia under Osmia s.s. Microscopical analysis of female pollen loads revealed that five species are specialized (‘oligolectic’) on Fabaceae or Boraginaceae, whereas the remaining species are polylectic, harvesting pollen from up to 19 plant families. Polylecty appears to be the ancestral state, with oligolectic lineages having evolved twice independently. Among the polylectic species, several intriguing patterns of host plant use were found, suggesting that host plant choice of these bees is constrained to different degrees and governed by flower morphology, pollen chemistry or nectar availability, thus supporting previous findings on predominantly oligolectic clades of bees. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 111 , 78–91.     

Analysis of DNA sequences of six chloroplast and nuclear genes suggests incongruence, introgression, and incomplete lineage sorting in the evolution of Lespedeza (Fabaceae)

The genus Lespedeza (Fabaceae) consists of 40 species disjunctively distributed in East Asia and eastern North America. Phylogenetic relationships of all Lespedeza species and closely related genera were reconstructed using maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian analyses of sequence data from five chloroplast (rpl16, rpl32-trnL, rps16-trnQ, trnL-F, and trnK/matK) and one nuclear (ITS) DNA regions. All analyses yielded consistent relationships among major lineages. Our results suggested that Campylotropis, Kummerowia, and Lespedeza are monophyletic, respectively. Lespedeza is resolved as sister to Kummerowia and these two together are further sister to Campylotropis. Neither of the two subgenera, subgen. Lespedeza and subgen. Macrolespedeza, in Lespedeza based on morphological characters, is recovered as monophyletic. Within Lespedeza, the North American clade is retrieved as sister to the Asian clade. The nuclear and chloroplast markers showed incongruent phylogenetic signals at shallow-level phylogeny, which may point to either introgression or incomplete lineage sorting in Lespedeza. The divergence times within Lespedeza and among related genera were estimated using Bayesian approach with BEAST. It is assumed that following the divergence between Kummerowia and Lespedeza in Asia in the late Miocene, the ancestor of Lespedeza diverged into the North American and the Asian lineages. The North American ancestor quickly migrated to North America through the Bering land bridge in the late Miocene. The North American and Asian lineages started to diversify almost simultaneously in the late Miocene but resulted in biased numbers of species in two continents.     

Molecular phylogeny and host use evolution of the genus Exorista Meigen (Diptera: Tachinidae)

Members of the genus Exorista are parasitoids of a diverse array of insect hosts in the orders, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Mantodea and Orthoptera. Phylogenetic relationships among subgenera and species of Exorista were inferred using four nuclear (Tpi, white, 18S and 28S) and four mitochondrial DNA (16S, 12S, ND5 and CO1) genes in maximum parsimony (MP), maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) analyses. Separate trees based on different sets of genes (mt DNA, nuclear, ribosomal, etc.) were compared and found to be nearly concordant. According to the molecular tree generated from the concatenated sequence data, the genus Exorista is paraphyletic. The phylogenetic analyses indicate the existence of two major clades of Exorista, including two genera Parasetigena and Phorocera. Morphological traits supporting clades indicated by molecular analyses within this genus are evaluated. Evolutionary patterns of the host use and host shifts are examined by optimizing host information using maximum likelihood on the molecular phylogeny. The ancestral host group of the tribe Exoristini (excluding Ctenophorinia and Phorinia) appears to be the order Lepidoptera, although hosts of some species are unknown. A major host shift to the Hymenoptera occurred in the clade of subgenus Adenia, and the ancestral state of subgenus Spixomyia is equivocal because there is little information available on the hosts in members of a subclade of this group (subclade A: Exorista hyalipennis group).     

Is the mega-diverse genus Ocyptamus (Diptera, Syrphidae) monophyletic? Evidence from molecular characters including the secondary structure of 28S rRNA

Phylogenetic relationships between two New World Syrphinae taxa (Diptera, Syrphidae), i.e. the highly diverse genus Ocyptamus and the large genus Toxomerus, were analysed based on molecular characters. The monophyly of both taxa was tested and the taxonomic status of included subgenera and species groups was examined. Toxomerus constitutes the monogeneric tribe Toxomerini with more than 140 described species, while Ocyptamus (tribe Syrphini) is a very diverse genus (over 300 spp.) with multiple recognised subgenera and species groups. Sequence data from three gene regions were used: the mitochondrial protein-coding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) and the nuclear 28S and 18S ribosomal RNA genes. The secondary structure of two expansion segments (D2, D3) of the ribosomal 28S RNA gene is presented for the family Syrphidae and used for the first time in a multiple sequence alignment. Molecular data were analysed using parsimony, maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference. Toxomerus was always recovered as monophyletic within Ocyptamus, and relationships to other New World taxa such as Salpingogaster (Eosalpingogaster) were well-supported. Only the subgenera and species groups of Ocyptamus were consistently recovered as monophyletic lineages, thus the apparent non-monophyly of Ocyptamus demands reclassification of this clade.     

Phylogenetic relationships within the South American fish family Anostomidae (Teleostei,Ostariophysi, Characiformes)

Analysis of a morphological dataset containing 152 parsimony‐informative characters yielded the first phylogenetic reconstruction spanning the South American characiform family Anostomidae. The reconstruction included 46 ingroup species representing all anostomid genera and subgenera. Outgroup comparisons included members of the sister group to the Anostomidae (the Chilodontidae) as well as members of the families Curimatidae, Characidae, Citharinidae, Distichodontidae, Hemiodontidae, Parodontidae and Prochilodontidae. The results supported a clade containing Anostomus, Gnathodolus, Pseudanos, Sartor and Synaptolaemus (the subfamily Anostominae sensu Winterbottom) albeit with a somewhat different set of relationships among the species within these genera. Anostomus as previously recognized was found to be paraphyletic and is split herein into two monophyletic components, a restricted Anostomus and the new genus Petulanos gen. nov. , described herein. Laemolyta appeared as sister to the clade containing Anostomus, Gnathodolus, Petulanos, Pseudanos, Sartor and Synaptolaemus. Rhytiodus and Schizodon together formed a well‐supported clade that was, in turn, sister to the clade containing Anostomus, Gnathodolus, Laemolyta, Petulanos, Pseudanos, Sartor and Synaptolaemus. Anostomoides was sister to the clade formed by these nine genera. Leporinus as currently defined was not found to be monophyletic, although certain clades within that genus were supported, including the species with subterminal mouths in the former subgenus Hypomasticus which we recognize herein as a genus. Abramites nested in Leporinus, and Leporellus was found to be the most basal anostomid genus. The presence of cis‐ and trans‐Andean species in Abramites, Leporellus, Leporinus and Schizodon, all relatively basal genera, suggests that much of the diversification of anostomid species pre‐dates the uplift of the Andean Cordilleras circa 11.8 million years ago. Several important morphological shifts in anostomid evolution are illustrated and discussed, including instances of convergence and reversal. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 154 , 70–210.     

A phylogeny of the northern temperate leafy liverwort genus Scapania (Scapaniaceae, Jungermanniales)

Scapania is a northern temperate genus with a few disjunctions in the south. Despite receiving considerable attention, the supraspecific classification of this genus remains unsatisfactorily solved. We use three molecular markers (nrITS, cpDNA trnL-F region, atpB-rbcL spacer) and 175 accessions belonging to 50 species (plus eight outgroup taxa) to estimate the phylogeny and to test current classification systems. Our data support the classification of Scapania into six rather than three subgenera, rearrangements within numerous sections, and inclusion of Macrodiplophyllum microdontum. Scapania species with a plicate perianth form three early diverging lineages; the most speciose subgenus, Scapania s.str., represents a derived clade. Most morphological species concepts are supported by the molecular topologies but classification of sect. Curtae requires further study. Southern lineages are nested in northern hemispheric clades. Palearctic-Nearctic distribution ranges are supported for several species.     

Revision of the pale-bellied Micronycteris Gray, 1866 (Chiroptera,Phyllostomidae) with descriptions of two new species

The systematics and taxonomy of the Neotropical genus Micronycteris are not yet resolved; previous studies evidenced paraphyletic relationships, a number of potential undescribed species, and inadequate diagnostic characters. This revision focuses on the pale-bellied members of the genus using phylogenetic and morphometric tools, an increased sample size with all recognized taxa, and an expanded geographic coverage relative to prior studies. For the genetic analyses (n = 166), four molecular markers were concatenated, one mitochondrial (cytb), one nuclear (Fgb-I7), and two Y-chromosomal (DBY5 and DBY7). In the Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses, the recognized subgenera Schizonycteris, Leuconycteris, Xenoctenes, and Micronycteris were recovered as monophyletic. The pale-bellied subgenera, Schizonycteris and Leuconycteris, were not sister clades; thus, venter coloration was not monophyletic. Leuconycteris was sister to the dark-bellied Micronycteris, and Schizonycteris was sister to the rest of the genus. Micronycteris schmidtorum was genetically defined for the first time, and it was determined all previous phylogenetic studies used a misidentified M. minuta from Bolivia. Our results showed a sister relationship between M. schmidtorum and M. brosseti, which redefines Leuconycteris. The subgenus Schizonycteris was also redefined, and it presented two well-supported clades from Central America and western Ecuador that are described as new species. Results are supported by a multivariate morphometric analyses (n = 114), karyological, and morphological comparisons. The taxonomic implications are discussed and emended diagnoses presented for the pale-bellied subgenera and for M. schmidtorum.