Implicit and explicit processes in social cognition

In this review we consider research on social cognition in which implicit processes can be compared and contrasted with explicit, conscious processes. In each case, their function is distinct, sometimes complementary and sometimes oppositional. We argue that implicit processes in social interaction are automatic and are often opposed to conscious strategies. While we are aware of explicit processes in social interaction, we cannot always use them to override implicit processes. Many studies show that implicit processes facilitate the sharing of knowledge, feelings, and actions, and hence, perhaps surprisingly, serve altruism rather than selfishness. On the other hand, higher-level conscious processes are as likely to be selfish as prosocial.     

Description of Tree Distribution Patterns and Their Development Through Marked Gibbs Processes

Tree distribution patterns in forest stands can be considered as marked point processes in the plane. Gibbs processes are a natural tool for modelling such point processes because the interaction between trees can be taken into account and described by pair potential functions. Consequently, tree distribution patterns can be characterized with few parameters and be compared quantitatively. By means of forest stand examples it is shown how these parametric models can be used for the analysis of tree distribution patterns at different time points.     

Morgan's Canon: Is it still a useful rule of thumb?

For over 100 years, Morgan's Canon has served as the criterion for distinguishing what appears to be complex cognitive processes shown by animals from simpler associative learning processes (Pavlovian and instrumental conditioning). Morgan's ( 1894 ) canon states “In no case is an animal activity to be interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes if it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and development.” In the present article, several examples are provided in which complex human‐like processes are proposed to have been demonstrated but the judicious use of Morgan's Canon suggests that simpler mechanisms may be sufficient to account for the behavior. The use of Morgan's Canon is not meant to reduce behavior to its lowest common denominator but rather to challenge investigators to develop procedures that can distinguish between simple behavioral principles and the more complex processes that cannot be explained in terms of genetics or simple conditioning. Whatever the results of these experiments, they should help identify the underlying processes and mechanisms involved.     

A study of some diffusion models of population growth

The stochastic differential equations of many diffusion processes which arise in studies of population growth in random environments can be transformed, if the Stratonovich stochastic calculus is employed, to the equation of the Wiener process. If the transformation function has certain properties then the transition probability density function and quantities relating to the time to first attain a given population size can be obtained from the known results for the Wiener process. Some other random growth processes can be derived from the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process. These transformation methods are applied to the random processes of Malthusian growth, Pearl-Verhulst logistic growth and a recent model of density independent growth due to Levins.     

Biorefinery: Toward an industrial metabolism

Fossil fuel reserves are running out, global warming is becoming a reality, waste recycling is becoming ever more costly and problematic, and unrelenting population growth will require more and more energy and consumer products. There is now an alternative to the 100% oil economy; it is a renewable resource based on agroresources by using the whole plant. Production and development of these new products are based on biorefinery concept. Each constituent of the plant can be extracted and functionalized in order to produce non-food and food fractions, intermediate agro-industrial products and synthons. Three major industrial domains can be concerned: molecules, materials and energy. Molecules can be used as solvent surfactants or chemical intermediates in substitution of petrol derivatives. Fibers can be valorized in materials like composites. Sugars and oils are currently used to produce biofuels like bioethanol or biodiesel, but second-generation biofuels will use lignocellulosic biomass as raw material. Lipids can be used to produce a large diversity of products like solvent, lubricants, pastes or surfactants. Industrial biorefinery will be linked to the creation of new processes based on the twelve principles of green chemistry (clean processes, atom economy, renewable feedstocks…). Biotechnology, especially white biotechnology, will take a major part into these new processes with biotransformations (enzymology, micro-organisms…) and fermentation. The substitution of oil products by biobased products will develop a new bioeconomy and new industrial processes respecting the sustainable development concept. Industrial biorefinery can be developed on the principle that any residues of one can then be exploited as raw material by others in an industrial metabolism.     

Linking hyphal growth to colony dynamics: Spatially explicit models of mycelia

The processes responsible for the growth of fungal mycelia act over a vast range of spatial scales; while nutrient uptake occurs at the molecular level, the fungal colony can expand by the order of centimetres each day. Although experiments can provide exceptionally detailed information on processes at specific scales, it can be difficult to relate those processes between different spatial scales. In this article a series of mathematical models are described that link the different spatial scales found within a mycelium. The models are all closely related to each other and are applied to a range of growth environments, and the advantages and limitations of each modelling approach are discussed.     

Bacteriophages and cancer

Bacteriophages can be used effectively to cure bacterial infections. They are known to be active against bacteria but inactive against eukaryotic cells. Nevertheless, novel observations suggest that phages are not neutral for higher organisms. They can affect physiological and immunological processes which may be crucial to their expected positive effects in therapies. Bacteriophages are a very differentiated group of viruses and at least some of them can influence cancer processes. Phages may also affect the immunological system. In general, they activate the immunological response, for example cytokine secretion. They can also switch the tumor microenvironment to one advantageous for anticancer treatment. On the other hand, bacteriophages are used as a platform for foreign peptides that may induce anticancer effects. As bacterial debris can interfere with bacteriophage activity, phage purification is significant for the final effect of a phage preparation. In this review, results of the influence of bacteriophages on cancer processes are presented which have implications for the perspective application of phage therapy in patients with cancer and the general understanding of the role of bacteriophages in the human organism.     

Apoptosis and differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes

We compared some processes characteristic for both apoptosis and terminal differentiation of epidermal keratinocytes. It can be proposed that nonapoptotic programmed cell death takes place during differentiation of keratinocytes. Apoptosis and terminal differentiation of keratinocytes appear to be different processes but some similar molecular mechanisms are involved in these processes.     

Matrix representation of cell structure,functional processes and evolution: Part V of a general theory

The purpose of this paper is to formulate a compact analytical representation of cell structure, functional processes and evolution. In this formulation, the individual molecular structures are represented by their force-field surfaces. Complementary active sites on these surfaces permit molecular interactions. In cells, these interactions are further regulated by barrier systems in time, space, specificity, and energy. In terms of these parameters, evolution can be represented (modeled) as a random walk in a multi-dimensional space, subject to constraints. In this paper, the various parameters are integrated into a single compact matrix (stack) representation (a three index array). Cell life cycle and functional processes can be represented as a sequence of quantized, time-dependent changes in the representation matrix, subject to specified constraints. Cell evolution can be modeled by generating allowed matrix combinations. This theoretical approach has applications in: (1) ordering and interpreting experimental findings into the matrix representation. Missing matrix elements can be predicted, to be confirmed experimentally; (2) theoretical analysis and prediction of cell regulatory processes and the possible pathological failures; (3) theoretical derivation of the possible biological structures and functional processes, modeling possible pathways of cell and molecular evolution in terms of the matrix representation.     

Removal of natural and xeno-estrogens during conventional wastewater treatment

The ecological impacts of natural estrogens and xenoestrogens in treated wastewater include altered sexual development and sex ratios among continuously exposed organisms. The primary sources of estrogenic activity in wastewater are natural estrogens such as estrone, 17β-estradiol and estriol and synthetic compounds like 17α-ethinylestradiol, alkylphenols and alklphenol ethoxylates. Precursors in raw wastewater can yield estrogenic intermediates during wastewater treatment. All these compounds can be destroyed by biochemical processes, albeit at significantly different rates or under different conditions. That is, estrogenic compounds can be, but are not always, destroyed by conventional wastewater treatment processes, suggesting that conventional processes can be optimized for removal of estrogenic activity from wastewater. Sorption to sludges derived from wastewater treatment affects the fates of hydrophobic xenoestrogens such as nonylphenol, in part because the biodegradability of sorbed contaminants is limited. It may also be possible to tailor sludge stabilization processes to remove trace contaminants, including estrogens. For example, there are significant differences in the efficiencies of aerobic and anaerobic digestion for destruction of alkylphenols and probably other estrogenic compounds with aromatic moieties. Because advanced wastewater treatment is not economically feasible for most communities, there is ample incentive to develop accurate relationships between operational parameters and removal of estrogenic compounds during secondary wastewater treatment.     

Trade-offs in resource allocation in the intracellular life-cycle of hepatitis C virus

Positive sense single-stranded RNA viruses undergo three mutually exclusive processes to replicate within a cell. These are translation to produce proteins, replication to produce RNA viral genomes, and packaging to form virions. The allocation of newly synthesised viral genomes to these processes, which can be regarded as life-history traits, may be subject to natural selection for efficient reproduction. Here, we develop a mathematical model of the process of intracellular viral replication to study alternative strategies for the allocation and reallocation of viral genomes to these processes. We explore four cases of the model: (1) Free Movement, in which viral genomes can freely be allocated and reallocated among translation, replication and packaging; (2) Unidirectional Reallocation, in which allocation occurs freely but reallocation can only proceed from translation to replication to packaging; (3) Conveyor Belt, in which viral genomes are first allocated to translation, then passed on to replication and finally to packaging; and (4) Permanent Allocation in which new genomes are allocated to the three processes but not reallocated between them. We apply this model to hepatitis C virus and study changes in the production of virus as the rates of allocation and reallocation are varied. We find that high viral production occurs when allocation and reallocation of the genome are weighted towards the translation and replication processes. The replication process in particular is favoured. The most productive strategy is a form of the Free Movement model in which genomes are allocated entirely to the replication-translation cycle while allowing some genomes to be packaged through reallocation.     

When Can Species Abundance Data Reveal Non-neutrality?

Species abundance distributions (SAD) are probably ecology’s most well-known empirical pattern, and over the last decades many models have been proposed to explain their shape. There is no consensus over which model is correct, because the degree to which different processes can be discerned from SAD patterns has not yet been rigorously quantified. We present a power calculation to quantify our ability to detect deviations from neutrality using species abundance data. We study non-neutral stochastic community models, and show that the presence of non-neutral processes is detectable if sample size is large enough and/or the amplitude of the effect is strong enough. Our framework can be used for any candidate community model that can be simulated on a computer, and determines both the sampling effort required to distinguish between alternative processes, and a range for the strength of non-neutral processes in communities whose patterns are statistically consistent with neutral theory. We find that even data sets of the scale of the 50 Ha forest plot on Barro Colorado Island, Panama, are unlikely to be large enough to detect deviations from neutrality caused by competitive interactions alone, though the presence of multiple non-neutral processes with contrasting effects on abundance distributions may be detectable.     

The Prospect of Purple Non-Sulfur (PNS) Photosynthetic Bacteria for Hydrogen Production: The Present State of the Art

Hydrogen is the fuel for the future, mainly due to its recyclability and nonpolluting nature. Biological hydrogen production processes are operated at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressures, thus are less energy intensive and more environmentally friendly as compared to thermochemical and electrochemical processes. Biohydrogen processes can be broadly classified as: photofermentation and dark fermentation. Two enzymes namely, nitrogenase and hydrogenase play an important role in biohydrogen production. Photofermentation by Purple Non-Sulfur bacteria (PNS) is a major field of research through which the overall yield for biological hydrogen production can be improved significantly by optimization of growth conditions and immobilization of active cells. The purpose of this paper is to review various processes of biohydrogen production using PNS bacteria along with several current developments. However, suitable process parameters such as carbon and nitrogen ratio, illumination intensity, bioreactor configuration and inoculum age may lead to higher yields of hydrogen generation using PNS bacteria.     

Profiles of random change during aging contain hidden information about longevity and the aging process.

Many different morphological and physiological changes occur during the yeast replicative lifespan. It has been proposed that change is a cause rather than an effect of aging. It is difficult to ascribe causality to processes that manifest themselves at the level of the entire organism, because of their global nature. Although causal connections can be established for processes that occur at the molecular level, their exact contributions are obscured, because they are immersed in a highly interactive network of processes. A top-down approach that can isolate crucial features of aging processes for further study may be a productive avenue. We have mathematically depicted the complicated and random changes that occur in cellular spatial organization during the lifespan of individual yeast cells. We call them budding profiles. This has allowed us to demonstrate that budding profiles are a highly individual characteristic, and that they are correlated with an individual cell's longevity. Additional information can be extracted from our model, indicating that random budding is associated with longevity. This expectation was confirmed, providing new avenues for exploring causal factors in yeast aging. The methodology described here can be readily applied to other aspects of aging in yeast and in higher organisms.     

Hybrid process models for process optimisation,monitoring and control

Hybrid models aim to describe different components of a process in different ways. This makes sense when the corresponding knowledge to be represented is different as well. In this way, the most efficient representations can be chosen and, thus, the model performance can be increased significantly. From the various possible variants of hybrid model, three are selected which were applied for important biotechnical processes, two of them from existing production processes. The examples show that hybrid models are powerful tools for process optimisation, monitoring and control.     

Free radicals in physiology and pathology.

Free radicals are molecules with odd number of electrons and a high instability. Free radicals, which can occur in both organic (i.e., quinones) and inorganic molecules (i.e., O2-), are very reactive and their reactions are critical for the normal activity of a wide spectrum of biologic processes. They are also produced in the catalytic action of a variety of cellular enzymes and electron transport processes and are implicated in a number of physiologic and pathologic processes. Organisms can be exposed to free radicals in many ways other than through the processes of normal metabolism. Irradiation of organisms with electromagnetic radiation generates primary radicals (e-aq, OH., and H.), which can then undergo secondary reactions with dissolved O2 or with cellular solutes. In addition, a wide variety of environmental agents (drugs capable of redox cycling, and xenobiotics that can form free radical metabolites) including the aging process cause free radical damage to cells. This review deals with the reactions they can undergo and discusses the free radicals related to toxicology.     

Macroalgae in biofuel production

The conversion processes of macroalgae for biofuels can be divided into thermochemical (dry) and microbiological (wet) processes. The chemical composition of macroalgae together with the pre‐treatment method, conversion conditions, and the characteristics of the microbes involved (wet processes) determine the yield and the properties of the biofuel produced. Macroalgae are often rich in carbohydrates, and therefore well suited for biogas, biobutanol and bioethanol productions. The content of triacylglycerols (TAGs) is the best indicator for the suitability of the alga for biodiesel production. TAGs have a high conversion rate to biodiesel, high percentage of fatty acids, and they lack phosphorus, sulfur and nitrogen. Macroalgae can have high metal concentrations, which can have an impact on conversion processes: metals may inhibit or catalyse the processes. High sulfur (especially in green algae) and nitrogen contents are also characteristic to macroalgae, and may be problematic in the production of biogas (NH₃‐toxicity) and the use of the oil and biodiesel (high concentrations of H₂S and NO_x‐compounds). Macroalgae have proven to be suitable material for conversion processes, but further optimization of the processes is needed. At present, macroalgae are not economically, or in many cases not even environmentally, sustainable material when the whole production chain is considered. In this review we summarize information on the chemical composition of macroalgae in a prospect of biofuel production, and the current situation in the field of macroalgal‐based biofuel production.     

Management of orthopteran pests: a conservation perspective

Although the vast majority of orthopterans are not pests, some species have the potential to cause serious damage to human interests. Management of pest populations frequently conflicts with conservation of orthopteran species and processes, particularly when the pest species or its ecological processes are susceptible to extinction or when the pest population is coincident with non-target orthopterans. With respect to chemical control, the greatest hazards are the broad-spectrum, highly lethal properties of most agents, which can be mitigated with formulation and application methods. Biological control risks permanent, large-scale changes to orthopteran species and processes which can be minimized with bioinsecticidal and other short-lived or selective formulations and reliable host-range testing. Cultural control may have large-scale, broad-spectrum impacts to non-target orthopterans, but these hazards can be diminished by appropriate testing and monitoring. Mechanical control methods may be impractically labour intensive, but they are highly target specific and therefore warrant further consideration. Social control measures such as education, insurance and compensation programmes appear to have little direct potential for harm to orthopteran conservation, but the complex socioeconomic and, ultimately, environmental consequences of such programmes have not been assessed. The melding of orthopteran pest management and conservation requires that we perceive these insects and their ecological processes to be vital elements of sustainable agroecosystems. Our management of orthopterans (both non-target and pest populations) must focus on keeping good stewards on the land.     

How to Ignite an Atmospheric Pressure Microwave Plasma Torch without Any Additional Igniters

This movie shows how an atmospheric pressure plasma torch can be ignited by microwave power with no additional igniters. After ignition of the plasma, a stable and continuous operation of the plasma is possible and the plasma torch can be used for many different applications. On one hand, the hot (3,600 K gas temperature) plasma can be used for chemical processes and on the other hand the cold afterglow (temperatures down to almost RT) can be applied for surface processes. For example chemical syntheses are interesting volume processes. Here the microwave plasma torch can be used for the decomposition of waste gases which are harmful and contribute to the global warming but are needed as etching gases in growing industry sectors like the semiconductor branch. Another application is the dissociation of CO₂. Surplus electrical energy from renewable energy sources can be used to dissociate CO₂ to CO and O₂. The CO can be further processed to gaseous or liquid higher hydrocarbons thereby providing chemical storage of the energy, synthetic fuels or platform chemicals for the chemical industry. Applications of the afterglow of the plasma torch are the treatment of surfaces to increase the adhesion of lacquer, glue or paint, and the sterilization or decontamination of different kind of surfaces. The movie will explain how to ignite the plasma solely by microwave power without any additional igniters, e.g., electric sparks. The microwave plasma torch is based on a combination of two resonators — a coaxial one which provides the ignition of the plasma and a cylindrical one which guarantees a continuous and stable operation of the plasma after ignition. The plasma can be operated in a long microwave transparent tube for volume processes or shaped by orifices for surface treatment purposes.