Kant on epigenesis, monogenesis and human nature: the biological premises of anthropology

The aim of this paper is to show that for Kant, a combination of epigenesis and monogenesis is the condition of possibility of anthropology as he conceives of it and that moreover, this has crucial implications for the biological dimension of his account of human nature. More precisely, I begin by arguing that Kant's conception of mankind as a natural species is based on two premises: firstly the biological unity of the human species (monogenesis of the human races); and secondly the existence of 'seeds' which may or may not develop depending on the environment (epigenesis of human natural predispositions). I then turn to Kant's account of man's natural predispositions and show that far from being limited to the issue of races, it encompasses unexpected human features such as gender, temperaments and nations. These predispositions, I argue, are means to the realisation of Nature's overall purpose for the human species. This allows me to conclude that man's biological determinism leads to the species' preservation, cultivation and civilisation.     

Change in the ultrastructural organization of Chaetogaster lymnaei neurons in the transition to the parasitic form of life

The fine structure of the brain and ventral nerve cord ganglia neurons has been studied in two subspecies of Chaetogaster lymnaei, one of them being a commensal and the other the kidney endoparasite. The nerve cells of parasitic forms are characterised by the presence of a whole set of structural simplifications. These are the poorer development of endoplasmic reticulum, the greater number of free ribosomes in the cell and the less number of mitochondria with certain alternations in the ultrastructure. The given features are suggested as criteria when studying the influence of parasitic mode of life upon the ultrastructural organization of the cells.     

Biological races in humans

Races may exist in humans in a cultural sense, but biological concepts of race are needed to access their reality in a non-species-specific manner and to see if cultural categories correspond to biological categories within humans. Modern biological concepts of race can be implemented objectively with molecular genetic data through hypothesis-testing. Genetic data sets are used to see if biological races exist in humans and in our closest evolutionary relative, the chimpanzee. Using the two most commonly used biological concepts of race, chimpanzees are indeed subdivided into races but humans are not. Adaptive traits, such as skin color, have frequently been used to define races in humans, but such adaptive traits reflect the underlying environmental factor to which they are adaptive and not overall genetic differentiation, and different adaptive traits define discordant groups. There are no objective criteria for choosing one adaptive trait over another to define race. As a consequence, adaptive traits do not define races in humans. Much of the recent scientific literature on human evolution portrays human populations as separate branches on an evolutionary tree. A tree-like structure among humans has been falsified whenever tested, so this practice is scientifically indefensible. It is also socially irresponsible as these pictorial representations of human evolution have more impact on the general public than nuanced phrases in the text of a scientific paper. Humans have much genetic diversity, but the vast majority of this diversity reflects individual uniqueness and not race.     

Janus-faced race: Is race biological,social, or mythical?

As belief in the reality of race as a biological category among U.S. anthropologists has fallen, belief in the reality of race as a social category has risen in its place. The view that race simply does not exist—that it is a myth—is treated with suspicion. While racial classification is linked to many of the worst evils of recent history, it is now widely believed to be necessary to fight back against racism. In this article, I argue that race is indeed a biological fiction, but I critique the claim that race is socially real. I defend a form of anti-realist reconstructionism about race, which says that there are no races, only racialized groups—groups mistakenly believed to be races. I argue that this is the most attractive position about race from a metaphysical perspective, and that it is also the position most conductive to public understanding and social justice.     

AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE BIRDS OF THE CRATER HIGHLANDS AND RIFT LAKES, NORTHERN TANGANYIKA TERRITORY.

Bird-plant communities are described. Moorland: effect of incomplete forest barrier in extending population as compared with Kilimanjaro. Upland grasslands: four subdivisions with distinctive avifauna tabularly compared. Upland bushland: two subdivisions. Evergreen forest. Upland waters. Intermediate scattered-tree grasslands: lodgment of distinctive populations. Ground-water forest. Lake and swamp: comparison between populations of Lakes Natron, Manyara and Embagai; analysis of migrant movements and biotic preferences among waterfowl.
Breeding seasons: contrast between upper and lower zones, in some cases implying biological races of common species.
Evolutionary significance of population; probable recent development of the four or five endemics; very mixed affinities of the remainder, which include forms associated with Kilimanjaro, Chyulu, Kenya Highlands, Lake Victoria basin, Uganda and S.W. Tanganyika, considered to indicate rather recent colonization, but in some instances survival from an earlier epoch.
Systematic notes on 23 species of special interest, including a review of the East African races of Colius striatus , field-notes on newly described races of Pinarochroa sordida and Cisticola hunteri , and a first account of the nesting of Nectarinia johnstoni.     

Physiologic specialization of Colletotrichum corchori,Ikata and Yoshida,the causal organism of anthracnose of jute (Corchorus capsularis L.)

Summary Four varieties of jute,Corchorus capsularis, among fifteen screened were found to differentiate six races ofColletotrichum corchori. As regard virulence only two races, CS-1 and CS-2 among the six were of real importance.Besides recognising six races on four differential jute varieties, these were also differentiated from their cultural and morphological studies on laboratory medium as six cultural races.     

Races of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris,Fabaceae)

Evidence for genetic diversity in cultivated common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is reviewed. Multivariate statistical analyses of morphological, agronomic, and molecular data, as well as other available information on Latin American landraces representing various geographical and ecological regions of their primary centers of domestications in the Americas, reveal the existence of two major groups of germplasm: Middle American and Andean South American, which could be further divided into six races. Three races originated in Middle America (races Durango, Jalisco, and Mesoamerica) and three in Andean South America (races Chile, Nueva Granada, and Peru). Their distinctive characteristics and their relationships with previously reported gene pools are discussed.     

Lack of mitochondrial DNA divergence between chromosome races of the common shrew, Sorex araneus, in Sweden. Implications for interpreting chromosomal evolution and colonization history

The common shrew, Sorex araneus, has one of the most variable karyotypes among mammals, displaying numerous chromosome races throughout its distribution. The six chromosome races present in Sweden can be categorized in two different karyotypic groups, the west and north European karyotypic groups (western and northern). Three races belonging to the western group are considered to have arisen through whole arm reciprocal translocations (WARTs). Race formation through this process requires a bottleneck event. In the present study we sequenced a part of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) genome to investigate molecular differences between the chromosome races in Sweden. We found no mtDNA differentiation between the mainland chromosome races or the karyotypic groups. Genetic variation is as large between populations within a race as between populations among the races or karyotypic groups, suggesting that the karyotypic groups might have originated in a common glacial refugium. The noticeable exception is the Oland race, which shows higher mtDNA diversity compared to the other Swedish races, indicating a divergent origin difficult to explain. Mitochondrial DNA variation in Sweden suggests that most haplotypes arose in situ and that the populations has undergone a rapid size expansion. Altogether, the mtDNA data are in agreement with the WART hypothesis, which still holds as the most plausible variant of karyotype evolution for three of the chromosome races of the common shrew in Sweden.     

Studies of mitochondrial DNA,allozyme and morphometric variation in a house mouse hybrid zone

An unusual chromosomal hybrid zone of the house mouse, Mus musculus domesticus, exists in Upper Valtellina, Northern Italy, consisting of four Robertsonian (Rb) races and the standard (all-acrocentric, or 2n = 40) race, all hybridizing freely within 10 km2. The hybrid zone in Valtellina provides an excellent opportunity to study the role of Rb fusions in reproductive isolation and speciation. This hybrid zone has already been well studied for the distribution of Rb fusions and the fertility of hybrids, but in order to understand the dynamics of the zone, a basic understanding of the origin and genetic similarity of the chromosomal races is necessary. This paper presents the results of three different methods of measuring genetic differentiation: multivariate analysis of morphological traits and analyses of allozyme variation and mitochondrial DNA sequences. The standard race is clearly distinguishable from the three Rb races by all three methods, but the Rb races are not distinguishable from one another. This provides strong evidence for our previous suggestions that the well-established Rb races in Valtellina are closely related, and that the standard race was introduced into the valley more recently from a distant source. The fact that the Rb races are indistinguishable is also consistent with our hypothesis that a within-village speciation event involving two of the races (Hauffe & Searle, 1992) was a recent occurrence. The low level of allozyme heterozygosity among the Rb races suggests that these populations are the products of at least one bottleneck. The present article substantially extends earlier studies and provides the first detailed morphological and molecular analysis of this complex hybrid zone.     

TAXONOMY,DISTRIBUTION, MIGRATION AND MOULT OF THE REDBREASTED SWALLOW HIRUNDO SEMIRUFA

Earlé R. A. & Brooke, R. K. 1989. Taxonomy, distribution, migration and moult of the Redbreasted Swallow Hirundo semirufa. Ostrich: 60:151-158.

There are two well defined races of the Redbreasted Swallow Hirundo semirufa, the nominate and gordoni. H. s. neumanni is a synonym of gordoni. The breeding ranges of the two races do not meet. The Redbreasted Swallow has extended its range south and southeast following the construction of concrete road culverts which provide nest sites, together with bush clearance. The strongly migratory southern populations reach their southern limits by August each ear and depart again mainly in March-April although there are some records for May. Males are significantly larger than females in wing length and the length of the longest rectrix but not in other measurements. Moulting birds were found in each month of the year but the moults of the two races are largely separated in time. Moulting birds were found only between 10S and 10N with the majority close to the equator.     

粉蝶盘绒茧蜂中国和荷兰种群学习行为及EAG反应的比较

昆虫的取食危害可导致植物释放的挥发物发生质和量的变化,天敌利用植物在受到植食性昆虫的危害后释放的挥发性物质来寻找寄主,这种植物挥发物在寄生蜂寻找寄主过程中扮演者重要的角色。粉蝶盘绒茧蜂(Cotesia glomerata)是菜粉蝶(pieris rapae)主要的内寄生蜂,是优良的蜂种,在生物防治上具有广阔的应用前景。分别以中国种群和荷兰种群的粉蝶盘绒茧蜂为研究对象,利用Y型嗅觉仪和触角电位(Electroantennogram,EAG)技术,比较了不同地理种群粉蝶盘绒茧蜂雌蜂的学习行为和触角电生理反应差异。旨在明确虫害植株释放的挥发物在两个地理种群中的作用。Y型嗅觉仪试验结果表明,雌蜂不同的学习经历会影响其对寄主植株的趋性行为。没有学习经历的中国种群雌蜂对虫害甘蓝挥发物较虫害紫甘蓝和虫害羽衣甘蓝挥发物表现出更强地趋性行为,无学习经历荷兰种群对虫害甘蓝挥发物同样表现出更强地趋性行为,中国种群3次间隔产卵和3次间隔气味学习使其对经历过的寄主植物挥发物趋性明显提高。荷兰种群3次间隔气味学习也会提高该蜂对经历寄主挥发物的趋性。EAG试验结果显示,两个地理种群雌蜂对所测定三类挥发物(体积比10-1)的反应强弱依次为:C6化合物>脂肪族化合物>萜类化合物;且在所测定的6种化合物剂量范围内,两个地理种群雌蜂均与trans-2--己醛和乙酸己酯(体积比10-4—10-1),壬醛、月桂烯和里那醇(体积比10-4—10-2)化合物的活性成正相关。结果表明,中国和荷兰种群雌蜂均表现出较为一致的学习能力和电生理反应。研究显示粉蝶盘绒茧蜂雌蜂可能利用甘蓝挥发物作为利它素而寻觅适宜的寄主,学习经历会明显提高该蜂对经历的寄主挥发物的趋性的行为。实验结果为菜粉蝶的生物防治提供理论基础。     

Divergence of the seasonal races of chum salmon, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Oncorhynchus keta</Emphasis> Walbaum, 1792, in the Amur and Poronai rivers: Ecology,genetics, and morphology

The chum salmon of the Amur River (the mainland part of the Far East) and the Poronai River (Terpeniya Bay, Sakhalin Island) are historically related to one another, as the drainage basins of these rivers are the remnants of a formerly single river system, the Paleoamur, which existed when Sakhalin Island was a part of the continent. Both river populations of chum salmon consist of the early-run and late-run ecological forms (seasonal races), which are also referred to as the summer and autumn races. They are reproductively isolated from each other due to their spawning at different times and in different types of spawning grounds. To assess the direction, pattern, and degree of divergence between these chum salmon races in the both river fragments since the Paleoamur, it is necessary to compare them using two types of traits: selectively neutral DNA markers and morphological and physiological traits, variations in which may have an adaptive value. For this, we have studied chum salmon from both rivers in terms of microsatellite DNA markers, body counts and measurements, body weight, and fecundity. Both in the Amur River and in the Poronai River, the autumn race of chum salmon prevails over the summer race in body length and weight, fecundity, number of pyloric caeca, and several other meristic traits. The intra-basin differences between the races are much more pronounced in the Amur chum salmon. The inter-race differences in microsatellites are also greater in the Amur chum salmon compared to the Poronai chum salmon. Using microsatellites, three levels of differentiation have been revealed: (1) between the basins of the Amur and Poronai rivers, (2) between the races within each of the river basins, (3) and between population samples within each race of each basin. A hypothesis is proposed that the currently existing races of chum salmon in the Amur and Poronai rivers have evolved since the breakup of the Paleoamur, and the intra-basin divergence of the races started in the Amur River earlier than in the Poronai River. An analysis of our own data and the published data suggests that the adaptation of the seasonal races of chum salmon to the conditions of their spawning grounds is determined by a complex of morphological and physiological traits, including the number of pyloric caeca, which is an adaptive and highly heritable trait associated with the incubation temperature of the water.     

mtDNA perspective of chromosomal diversification and hybridization in Peters' tent-making bat (Uroderma bilobatum: Phyllostomidae)

We compared sequence variation in the complete mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene with chromosomal and geographical variation for specimens of Peters' tent-making bat (Uroderma bilobatum). Three different chromosomal races have been described in this species: a 2n = 42 race from South America east of the Andes, a 2n = 44 from NW Central America and 2n = 38 from the rest of Central America and NW South America. The deepest nodes in the tree were found within the South American race (42 race), which is consistent with a longer history of this race. Average distance among races ranged from 2.5 to 2.9%, with the highest amount of intraracial variation found within the 2n = 42 race (1.7%), intermediate values within the 2n = 38 race (0.9%) and lowest within the 2n = 44 race (0.5%). Variation among chromosomal races accounted for over 55% of molecular variance, whereas variation among populations within races accounted for 6%. The 2n = 38 and 2n = 44 races hybridize in the coastal lowlands of Honduras, near the Gulf of Fonseca. Introgression between these two races is low (two introgressed individuals in 45 examined). Clinal variation across the hybrid zone for the cytochrome-b of U. bilobatum, is similar to clinal variation reported for chromosomes and isozymes of this species. Mismatch distribution analyses suggests that geographical isolation and karyological changes have interplayed in a synergistic fashion. Fixation of the alternative chromosomal rearrangements in geographical isolation and secondary contact is the most likely mechanism accounting for the hybrid zone between the 2n = 38 and 2n = 44 races. If a molecular clock is assumed, with rates ranging from 2.3 to 5.0% per million years, then isolation between these races occurred within the last million years, implying a relatively recent origin of the extant diversity in Uroderma bilobatum. None the less, the three chromosomal races probably represent three different biological species.     

Edaphic races and phylogenetic taxa in the Lasthenia californica complex (Asteraceae: Heliantheae): an hypothesis of parallel evolution

Lasthenia californica sensu Ornduff consists of two races that differ in their flavonoid pigments and edaphic tolerances. Recent phylogenetic studies of Lasthenia have revealed that members of L. californica sensu Ornduff belong to two phylogenetic species. The relationship of the edaphic races to these new species and to each other is the focus of this study. Characterization of flavonoid profiles and phylogenetic placement of 33 populations demonstrates that races and phylogenetic taxa are not concordant, suggesting that one or both edaphic races evolved in parallel in the two clades. We hypothesize an edaphically linked ecological role for flavonoid differences that first revealed the existence of two races.     

The tobacco mouse and its relatives: a "tail" of coat colors, chromosomes, hybridization and speciation

The article reviews over 30 years' study of the chromosomal variation of the western house mice (Mus musculus domesticus) from the neighboring valleys of Poschiavo and Valtellina on the Swiss-Italian border. This is done in the context of the social and political history of this area, on the grounds that mice, as commensals, are influenced by human history. The chromosomal study of mice in this area was initiated because their unusual black coat color led a 19th century naturalist to describe the "tobacco mice" from Val Poschiavo as a separate species (Mus poschiavinus). The special coloration of the Val Poschiavo mice is matched by their chromosomes: they have 26 chromosomes instead of the usual 40. The Val Poschiavo mice are not a separate species according to the Biological Species Concept; instead they constitute a chromosome race (the "Poschiavo", POS) that is related to other races with reduced chromosome numbers that occur in N Italy (of which only those races in Val Poschiavo and Upper Valtellina have black coats). A phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences suggests that the lineage of chromosome races found in N Italy was not formed during an extreme population bottleneck, although such bottlenecks have apparently occurred during the origin of individual races and certainly have influenced single populations. In one small, isolated population in Valtellina (Migiondo), two chromosome races (the POS and the "Upper Valtellina", UV, 2n = 24) became reproductively isolated from each other. In another small population (Sernio) bottlenecking led to fixation of a hybrid form with the UV karyotype and coat color, but with allozyme and microsatellite alleles characteristic of mice with the standard 40-chromosome karyotype. Two of the chromosome races in Valtellina (the UV and the "Mid Valtellina", MV, 2n = 24) also appear to be the product of hybridization. The dynamic history and patchy distribution of the house mouse chromosome races in Val Poschiavo and Valtellina in part reflects extinction-recolonization events; the formation of the UV and MV races and the introduction of the pale brown Standard race mice are believed to reflect such events. Dynamism in the chromosomal constitution of single populations is also evident from 25 years of data on the population in Migiondo. Due to change in agricultural practices, house mice in Valtellina and Val Poschiavo are becoming rarer, which is likely to have further impacts on the distribution and characteristics of the chromosome races in this area.     

Polyploid races of earthworms (Lumbricidae, Oligochaeta) in the East European plain and Siberia

The distribution of polyploid races of earthworms in the East European plain and Siberia was analyzed. Amphimictic autopolyploid races of two species of the Asian genus Eisenia, E. nordenskioldi and E. atlaviniteae, are widespread in Siberia, from its southern boundary to the arctic region, while polyploid Lumbricidae in the East-European plain, except for the Volga region, are represented mainly by parthenogenetic forms of other genera. This is presumably related to differences in the Pleistocene environmental history between the two adjacent geographic regions of Eurasia.     

中国20个民族中PGM_1及其亚型EsD、GLO1、AK、ADA和6-PGD酶型分布调查

调查了汉族、鄂伦春、赫哲、朝鲜、蒙古、羌、土家、苗、侗、畲、壮、纳西、傈僳、白、彝、景颇、哈尼、傣、维吾尔和塔吉克等20个民族的PGM_1及其亚型,EsD、GLO_1、AK、ADA和6-PGD等酶型的分布及基因频率。PGM_1及其亚型、EsD和GLO_1在中国各民族中是分布较好的,个人识别能力较高的酶。有12个民族查出有PQM_1~6基因,壮族的频率最高,PGM_1 6-1表型达4.15％。对在4174份血样中所检出的带有PGM_1~6基因的68份血样做亚型分析,在凝胶上PGM_1~6谱带均在同一位置上。EsD_1基因频率的总趋向是北方各民族高于南方。哈尼、傈僳、傣、纳西、畲、壮、侗和苗等民族EsD2-2表型达15％以上,哈尼族高达32.4％。GLO1~1基因频率塔吉克和维吾尔族为0.2927和0.2112,羌族为0.0583,其它各族在0.0714—0.1527。各民族AK~1、ADA和6-PGD~(?)基因频率均甚高。     

Density-dependent processes determine the distribution of chromosomal races of the common shrew <Emphasis Type="Italic">Sorex araneus</Emphasis> (Lipotyphla,Mammalia)

The common shrew is subdivided into 74 chromosomal races, widely distributed in the postglacial area from the Britain Islands to Lake Baikal. Based on 1969 karyotypes from 216 localities, we present for the first time a map of ranges of 25 chromosomal races (except the Altai race) currently known in Russia. We revealed two centers of high karyotypic diversity: the western (near Baltic Sea) and the eastern (near Baikal Lake). The studied races were categorized as small-, medium-, and large-range races, and small-range races concentrated around those two centers of karyotypic diversity. We did not find any significant association between race range size and ecological zone, latitude, or the ambient temperature. Physical barriers, such as Ural Mountain or rivers, do not limit race distribution. The width of rivers that divide a range of a single race or ranges of two different races does not differ. We supposed that the occupation of an area by a race could limit the invasion of a different race from an adjacent area and expansion of its range, thus contributing to race parapatric distribution alone without additional effects of physical barriers. Based on karyotype similarity and geographic localization, we combined races into four “karyotypic chains,” in which the races can be derived from one another consequently by a single chromosomal translocation. The present distribution of the common shrew races in Russia supports the idea that it has resulted from recolonization from refugia governed by the density-dependent processes.     

The Structure, Distribution and Evolution of the Ta1 Retrotransposable Element Family of Arabidopsis Thaliana

The Ta1 elements are a low copy number, copia-like retrotransposable element family of Arabidopsis thaliana. Six Ta1 insertions comprise all of the Ta1 element copies found in three geographically diverse A. thaliana races. These six elements occupy three distinct target sites: Ta1-1 is located on chromosome 5 and is common to all three races (Col-0, Kas-1 and La-0). Ta1-2 is present in two races on chromosome 4 (Kas-1 and La-0), and Ta1-3, also located on chromosome 4, is present only in one race (La-0). The six Ta1 insertions share >96% nucleotide identity, yet are likely to be incapable of further transposition due to deletions or nucleotide changes that alter either the coding capacity of the elements or conserved protein domains required for retrotransposition. Nucleotide sequence comparisons of these elements and the distribution of Ta1 among 12 additional A. thaliana geographical races suggest that Ta1-1 predated the global dispersal of A. thaliana. As the species spread throughout the world, two additional transposition events occurred which gave rise first to Ta1-2 and finally to Ta1-3.     

Archeology, population genetics and studies of human racial ancestry.

Using traditional classification, many people have tried to determine the place and time of origin of the major human races. Two basically conflicting views have prevailed, one asserting that races developed as local variations in a species evolving phyletically over much of the Old World for up to one million years, and the other view holding that present races are local variations on populations recently expanding into most areas and replacing the previous hominid inhabitants, this occurring since the time of the Neanderthals. Both views are based on the same archeological data. Gene frequency data and time-calibrated genetic distance measures have recently been applied to this problem. Here we show that the probable demographic nature of Pleistocene populations has obscured genetic distances to such an extent that they cannot be used to discriminate between the two viewpoints of racial origins. The racial classifications themselves are probably not useful in this context and obscure the question, so that we presently do not have a scientifically valid understanding of racial origins.