Integration of coordination into the morphological-motor system in male children aged 7-11 years

The study objective was to analyze the integration of psychomotor coordination into other dimensions evaluated. Four morphologic variables (stature, body mass, forearm circumference and triceps skinfold) and 7 motor variables (hand tapping, standing jump, sit-ups, forward bow, bent arm hang, 3-min run and polygon backward) were assessed in a sample of 2205 male children (subdivided into 4 groups) aged 7-11 years, elementary school first- to fourth-graders from the Primorje - Gorski Kotar County, Republic of Croatia. Relations between the set of morphologic-motor variables and the coordination variable (of backward polygon) as a criterion were analyzed Data were processed by use of regression analysis. Study results clearly indicated the values of the criterion variable (coordination) to rise and the criterion prediction using the set of variables to improve with age. Explosive strength, movement frequency and static strength were the best positive criterion predictors, whereas body weight at age 7-10, and skeletal longitudinality and subcutaneous adipose tissue at age 10-11 were the best negative criterion predictors. Also, developmental characteristics of coordination were found to be a major determinant on programming the work in kinesiologic education of elementary school children.     

Orthogonal factor coefficient development of subcutaneous adipose tissue topography (SAT-Top) in girls and boys

The new optical device Lipometer allows noninvasive, quick, and safe determination of the thickness of subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) layers (in mm) at any site of the human body. The specification of 15 evenly distributed body sites enables the precise measurement of subcutaneous body fat distribution, so-called subcutaneous adipose tissue topography (SAT-Top). SAT-Top was measured in 980 children aged 7-19 years. In this paper we describe the degree to which SAT-Top body sites are intercorrelated. We consider whether a meaningful reduction of data is possible using factor analysis, which factors can be extracted, and how SAT-Top data of children can be added to a factor value plot, depicting the essential results of age-dependent subcutaneous fat development. SAT layers situated on the same body area provide correlation coefficients up to +r = 0.91. Two factors are extracted: factor 1, containing all upper body sites (from neck to hip); and factor 2, consisting of all leg body sites. When all 980 children are divided into three age groups in a factor value plot, the first age group (7-11 years) shows almost equal SAT-Top development in boys and girls. Afterwards, for the consecutive age groups 2 (11-15 years) and 3 (15-19 years), the age-dependent subcutaneous fat development of boys and girls progresses into nearly orthogonal directions.     

Evaluation of risk profiles by subcutaneous adipose tissue topography in obese juveniles

Objective: To compare subcutaneous adipose tissue topography (SAT‐top) in obese juveniles with age‐matched normal‐weight controls. Research Methods and Procedures: The optical device LIPOMETER (European Patent EP 0516251) enables the non‐invasive, rapid, safe, and precise measurement of the thickness of subcutaneous adipose tissue. Fifteen defined body sites (1 = neck to 15 = calf) characterize the individual SAT‐top like an individual fingerprint. SAT‐top of 1351 juveniles (obese: 42 boys, 59 girls, normal weight: 680 boys, 570 girls) from 7 to 19 years of age were measured. For visual comparison, the 15‐dimensional SAT‐top information was condensed by factor analysis into a two‐dimensional factor plot. Results: Both female and male obese juveniles had markedly increased adipose tissue layers at 7 = upper abdomen, 8 = lower abdomen, 5 = front chest, and 6 = lateral chest. The pubertal changes of body shape and fat distribution of the normal‐weight boys and girls (boys show thinner adipose tissue layers on their legs, whereas girls had thicker adipose tissue layers at the extremities) were not seen in the obese group. Independently of age and sex, all of the obese juveniles showed a similar, more android body fat distribution with increased trunk fat. Discussion: SAT‐top of the obese juveniles is similar to that of patients with type 2 diabetes, polycystic ovary syndrome, and coronary heart disease. Patients with these metabolic disorders and obese juveniles are located in the factor plot in the same area. This body shape may indicate a risk profile for developing polycystic ovary syndrome (women), type 2 diabetes, and early atherosclerosis (both sexes).     

Plasma visfatin concentration as a surrogate marker for visceral fat accumulation in obese children

Objective: This study was designed to elucidate whether the plasma visfatin level reflects visceral or subcutaneous fat accumulation and metabolic derangement in obese children. Methods and Procedures: Fifty‐six obese Japanese children, including 37 boys and 19 girls were enrolled in the study. The age of the subjects ranged from 5 to 15 (10.2 ± 0.3; mean ± s.e.m.) years. The age‐matched control group for measuring visfatin consisted of 20 non‐obese children. Visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) areas were measured by computed tomography. The plasma concentrations for visfatin and leptin were assayed by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay kits. Results: The plasma visfatin level was higher in the obese (14.7 ± 0.9 ng/ml) than in the control children (8.6 ± 0.6 ng/ml). In a univariate analysis, the visfatin correlated significantly with age, height, body weight, waist circumference, VAT and SAT area, triglyceride (TG), insulin, and the homeostasis model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA‐R). After being adjusted for age and sex, only the VAT area retained significant partial correlation with visfatin, and in contrast the body weight, BMI–s.d., and SAT area with leptin. The plasma visfatin concentration was not correlated with leptin. The plasma visfatin levels in the control, non‐metabolic syndrome (MS) (n = 49), and MS groups (n = 7) were significantly different from each other. Discussion: These results suggest that plasma visfatin level is a specific marker for visceral fat accumulation in obese children. As a good surrogate marker, plasma visfatin level can predict the VAT area in obese children.     

Rapid Postnatal Weight Gain and Visceral Adiposity in Adulthood: The Fels Longitudinal Study

Rapid infant weight gain is associated with increased abdominal adiposity, but there is no published report of the relationship of early infant growth to differences in specific adipose tissue depots in the abdomen, including visceral adipose tissue (VAT). In this study, we tested the associations of birth weight, infant weight gain, and other early life traits with VAT, abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue (ASAT), and other body composition measures using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiometry in middle adulthood (mean age = 46.5 years). The sample included 233 appropriate for gestational age singleton white children (114 males) enrolled in the Fels Longitudinal Study. Multivariate‐adjusted general linear models were used to test the association of infant weight gain (from 0 to 2 years), maternal BMI, gestational age, parity, maternal age, and other covariates with adulthood body composition. Compared to infants with slow weight gain, rapid weight gain was associated with elevated risk of obesity (adjusted odds ratio = 4.1, 95% confidence interval = 1.4, 11.1), higher total body fat (+7 kg, P = 0.0002), percent body fat (+5%, P = 0.0006), logVAT mass (+0.43 kg, P = 0.02), logASAT mass (+0.47 kg, P = 0.001), and percent abdominal fat (+5%, P = 0.03). There was no evidence that the increased abdominal adipose tissue was due to a preferential deposition of VAT. In conclusion, rapid infant weight gain is associated with increases in both VAT and ASAT, as well as total adiposity and the risk of obesity in middle adulthood.     

Sexual dimorphism in age-related changes in UCP2 and leptin gene expression in subcutaneous adipose tissue in humans

The influence of age and gender on uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2) expression and its relationship with leptin expression in subcutaneous adipose tissue has been studied in humans. Samples of subcutaneous adipose tissue were obtained from 41 adult subjects (20 women and 21 men), with an age range of 28 to 84 years, and body mass index (BMI) of 19 to 36 Kgm(minus sign2). UCP2 and leptin mRNA expression was determined by northern blot. In women, both leptin and UCP2 expression in the subcutaneous adipose tissue increased significantly with age (r = 0.490 p < 0.05 and r = 0.475 p < 0.05, respectively). In men, in contrast, a negative correlation was found between leptin expression and age (r = minus sign0.678 p < 0.001), while no significant correlation was apparent between UCP2 expression and age (r = minus sign0.077). In addition, there was a positive correlation between UCP2 and leptin expression in women (r = 0.656 p < 0.01). These data show important gender dependent differences in the age-related changes in leptin and UCP2 expression in subcutaneous adipose tissue in humans.     

Comparison of body composition in middle-aged and elderly males using computed tomography

Computed tomography (CT) scans were taken of 21 middle-aged men (mean age 46.3 years) and 20 older men (mean age 69.4 years) to measure differences in body composition with age. Overall, the older men weighed 8.2 kg less than the middle-aged men, and this difference was primarily the result of their having less lean tissue. Although fat mass (by whole body potassium counting) was only slightly less in older men, there were distributional differences in fat between the age groups. Total abdomen adipose tissue area (from CT) was similar in both groups, although the subcutaneous portion of the abdomen adipose tissue was less in the older men, and they had correspondingly more adipose tissue within the abdominal cavity. Muscle areas of the leg and arm were significantly less in the older men, as were all lean tissues of the abdomen and chest. When these data were corrected for differences in body weight with age, the results were still significant, suggesting a centripetalization and internalization of fat with age. Causes of this apparent fat redistribution and decrease of lean tissue with age were not revealed by this study and are presently unknown.     

Relationships between body fat measured by DXA and subcutaneous adipose tissue thickness measured by Lipometer in adults

The aim of this study was to examine the relationships between body fat measured by DXA and subcutaneous adipose tissue layers (SAT-layers) measured by LIPOMETER in adult males (n=28) and females (n=53). Body height and mass were measured and BMI was calculated (kg/m2). Measurements of the thicknesses of SAT-layers by LIPOMETER were performed at 15 original body sites. Body composition was measured using DXA. Total body fat % measured by DXA was highly dependent on the SAT-layers in the upper back and inner thigh in males (87.1%, R(2)x100) and the lateral chest, biceps, and calf in females (78.5%, R(2)x100). There were gender differences in trunk fat mass and right hand and leg fat mass calculation using specific SAT-layers. In conclusion, our results indicate that there are close relationships between SAT-layers and body fat measured by DXA. However, there are big differences between genders.     

Growth of Visceral Fat,Subcutaneous Abdominal Fat,and Total Body Fat in Children

Objective: To examine the patterns of growth of visceral fat, subcutaneous abdominal fat, and total body fat over a 3‐ to 5‐year period in white and African American children. Research Methods and Procedures: Children (mean age: 8.1 ± 1.6 years at baseline) were recruited from Birmingham, Alabama, and those with three or more repeated annual measurements were included in the analysis (N = 138 children and 601 observations). Abdominal adipose tissue (visceral and subcutaneous) was measured using computed tomography. Total body fat and lean tissue mass were measured by DXA. Random growth curve modeling was performed to estimate growth rates of the different body fat compartments. Results: Visceral fat and total body fat both exhibited significant growth effects before and after adjusting for subcutaneous abdominal fat and lean tissue mass, respectively, and for gender, race, and baseline age (5.2 ± 2.2 cm²/yr and 1.9 ± 0.8 kg/yr, respectively). After adjusting for total body fat, the growth of subcutaneous abdominal fat was not significant. Whites showed a higher visceral fat growth than did African Americans (difference: 1.9 ± 0.8 cm²/yr), but there was no ethnic difference for growth of subcutaneous abdominal fat or total body fat. There were no gender differences found for any of the growth rates. Discussion: Growth of visceral fat remained significant after adjusting for growth of subcutaneous abdominal fat, implying that the acquisition of the two abdominal fat compartments may involve different physiologic mechanisms. In contrast, growth of subcutaneous abdominal fat was explained by growth in total body fat, suggesting that subcutaneous fat may not be preferentially deposited in the abdominal area during this phase of growth. Finally, significantly higher growth of visceral fat in white compared with African American children is consistent with cross‐sectional findings.     

Expressions of Leptin and Insulin‐Like Growth Factor‐I Are Highly Correlated and Region‐Specific in Adipose Tissue of Growing Rats

Objective: Anatomically distinct adipose tissue regions differ in their predominant modality of growth (i.e., cellular hypertrophy vs. hyperplasia). We examined site‐specific patterns of expression of two genes whose products, leptin and insulin‐like growth factor‐I (IGF‐I), could be involved in mediating differential growth and metabolism of white adipose tissue. We also related these patterns of expression to measures of adipose depot cellularity. Research Methods and Procedures: Male Wistar rats were fed ad libitum and studied from ages 7 weeks to ～12 months. Terminal measures of body weights; weights, composition, and cellularity of four white adipose depots; circulating leptin and IGF‐I; and adipose depot‐specific expression levels of leptin and IGF‐I were measured in subsets of rats at 7, 12, 22, 42, and 46 weeks of age. Results: Both leptin and IGF‐I mRNAs are quantitatively expressed in a depot‐specific manner, in the following order: retroperitoneal ? epididymal > mesenteric > subcutaneous inguinal. Furthermore, there is a marked correlation between the expressions of these hormones in the various regions of adipose tissue of rats during the first year of life. The mechanisms that underlie the parallel expressions of leptin and IGF‐I appear to be related to fat‐cell volume. Discussion: Because both leptin and IGF‐I have been implicated in the regulation of energy homeostasis and are both expressed in adipose tissue, the depot‐specific linkage between the two genes suggests interaction at the autocrine level. This interaction may have an important role in determining functional properties particular to individual adipose depots.     

Body Compartment and Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue Distribution - Risk Factor Patterns in Obese Subjects

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether upper body obesity and/or visceral obesity are related to cardiovascular risk factors among severely obese subjects, phenomena that have previously been reported in more heterogeneous body weight distri -buttons. 2450 severely obese men and women aged 37 to 59 years, with a body mass index of 39 ± 4.5 kg/m² (mean ± SD) were examined cross-sectionally. Eight cardiovascular risk factors were studied in relation. to the following body composition indicators: four trunk and three limb circumferences, along with weight, height and sagittal trunk diameter. From the latter three measurements lean body mass (LBM, i.e., the non-adipose tissue mass) and the masses of subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue were estimated by using sex-specific prediction equations previously calibrated by computed tomography. Two risk factor patterns could be distinguished: 1. One body compartment- risk factor pattern in which the subcutaneous adipose tissue (AT) mass and, in particular, the visceral AT mass were positively related to most risk factors while the lean body mass was negatively related to some risk factors. 2. One subcutaneous adipose tissue distribution- risk factor pattern in which the neck circumference was positively and the thigh circumference negatively related to several risk factors. It is concluded that lean body mass (LBM), visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissue masses as well as neck and thigh circumferences, used as indices of subcutaneous adipose tissue distribution, are independently related to cardiovascular risk factors in severely obese men and women.     

Differences of subcutaneous adipose tissue topography between type-2 diabetic men and healthy controls

Men with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (type 2 DM) provide a different subcutaneous body fat distribution and a concentration of fatness on the upper trunk compared with healthy subjects. However, subcutaneous fat distribution is always measured in an inaccurate and/or very simplified way (e.g., by caliper), and to date, there exists no study reporting on the exact and complete subcutaneous adipose tissue distribution of type 2 DM men. A new optical device, the LIPOMETER, enables the nonivasive, quick, and safe determination of the thickness of subcutaneous adipose tissue layers at any given site of the human body. The specification of 15 evenly distributed body sites allows the precise measurement of subcutaneous body fat distribution, so-called subcutaneous adipose tissue topography (SAT-Top). SAT-Tops of 21 men with clinically proven type 2 DM (mean age of 57.5 +/- 6.7 years) and 111 healthy controls of similar age (mean age 59.0 +/- 5.4 years) were measured. In this paper, we describe the precise SAT-Top differences of these two groups and we present the multidimensional SAT-Top information condensed in a two-dimensional factor value plot. In type 2 DM men, especially in the upper trunk, SAT-Top is significantly increased (up to +50.7% at the neck) compared with their healthy controls. One hundred eleven of the 132 individuals (84.1%) are correctly classified (healthy or type 2 DM) by their subcutaneous fat pattern by stepwise discriminant analysis.     

Total nitrogen and L-hydroxyproline content of adipose tissue from various sites in rats of different ages

The total nitrogen and L-hydroxyproline concentrations of two intra-abdominal and two subcutaneous sites of adipose tissue were measured in male and female Wistar rats. At 100 g body weight the nitrogen concentration of intra-abdominal adipose tissue was slightly lower than that of subcutaneous adipose tissue. As age advanced beyond sexual maturity, the nitrogen content of intra-abdominal adipose tissue was steadily reduced, whereas that of subcutaneous tissue did not change. The L-hydroxyproline concentration of intra-abdominal adipose tissue was also lower than in subcutaneous adipose tissue. In male rats it rose in most adipose tissue sites when sexual maturity was reached, then fell with advancing age. In female rats the pattern of change was less consistent, but the l-hydroxyproline content of intra-abdominal adipose tissue was reduced as age increased.     

Some trends in the somatic development of children and adolescents under iodine-deficiency: materials from the Saratov region

2,106 girls and 2,169 boys from 7 to 17 were investigated in 2002-2004 in three urban settlements of the Saratov region (Povolzhje area): the town of Khvalynsk, population 15,000, with a low level of industrialization; the city of Balakovo, population 220,000, highly industrialized and with a nuclear power station; and the city of Saratov, population around 1,000,000 a regional capital, and also highly industrialized. The whole area, particularly the location of Khvalynsk, is also characterized by iodine deficiency (iodine concentration is 0.78 mkg/kg v. normal values of 5-7 mkg/kg).The program included about 30 anthropometric measurements, evaluation of developmental stages of secondary sexual characteristics, and information on menarcheal age by the status quo method. Information on parental occupation and education, as well as number of children per family was collected by questionnaire. For the analysis all the data were standardized, and further comparisons were made irrespective of age groups. The significance of differences was assessed by one-way ANOVA. For height, weight and chest circumference there are significant differences among the three populations (p < 0.001), with Khvalynsk children being the smallest in body height and weight. However, in chest circumference they are close to or even bigger (girls) than Balakovo children. The children from Khvalynsk are characterized by the lowest values for subcutaneous fat layer, both on the trunk and extremities. For the age of menarche, Khvalynsk girls have the highest values: 13 years 5 months (13.42). In Balakovo and Saratov, the corresponding figures are identical: 13 years 2 months (13.17). Secular changes in Khvalynsk and Saratov children are discussed as compared to the literature.     

Lipolytic effect of TSH, glucagon and hydrocortisone on the adipose tissue of newborns and adults in vitro.

In an in vitro study, TSH stimulated glycerol release from the subcutaneous adipose tissue of newborns, but had no effect on its release from the adipose tissue of adults. Hydrocortisone stimulated only NEFA release in newborns. Glucagone had no effect on either neonatal or adult adipose tissue.     

Estrogen Reduces 11β‐Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 1 in Liver and Visceral,but Not Subcutaneous,Adipose Tissue in Rats

Following menopause, body fat is redistributed from peripheral to central depots. This may be linked to the age related decrease in estrogen levels. We hypothesized that estrogen supplementation could counteract this fat redistribution through tissue‐specific modulation of glucocorticoid exposure. We measured fat depot masses and the expression and activity of the glucocorticoid‐activating enzyme 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11βHSD1) in fat and liver of ovariectomized female rats treated with or without 17β‐estradiol. 11βHSD1 converts inert cortisone, or 11‐dehydrocorticosterone in rats into active cortisol and corticosterone. Estradiol‐treated rats gained less weight and had significantly lower visceral adipose tissue weight than nontreated rats (P < 0.01); subcutaneous adipose weight was unaltered. In addition, 11βHSD1 activity/expression was downregulated in liver and visceral, but not subcutaneous, fat of estradiol‐treated rats (P < 0.001 for both). This downregulation altered the balance of 11βHSD1 expression and activity between adipose tissue depots, with higher levels in subcutaneous than visceral adipose tissue of estradiol‐treated animals (P < 0.05 for both), opposite the pattern in ovariectomized rats not treated with estradiol (P < 0.001 for mRNA expression). Thus, estrogen modulates fat distribution, at least in part, through effects on tissue‐specific glucocorticoid metabolism, suggesting that estrogen replacement therapy could influence obesity related morbidity in postmenopausal women.     

Regional uptake of meal fatty acids in humans

Two protocols were performed to study meal fatty acid metabolism. In protocol 1, 14 patients scheduled for elective intra-abdominal surgery (11 undergoing bariatric surgery for severe obesity) consumed a meal containing [3H]triolein in the evening before surgery. This allowed us to measure adipose tissue lipid specific activity (SA) in mesenteric and omental, deep and superficial abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue. Intra-abdominal adipose tissue lipid SA was greater than subcutaneous lipid SA. There were no significant differences between mesenteric and omental or between deep and superficial abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue. In protocol 2, meal fatty acid oxidation and uptake into subcutaneous and omental adipose tissue ([3H]triolein) were measured in six normal, healthy volunteers. Meal fatty acid oxidation (3H2O generation) plus that remaining in plasma ( approximately 1%) plus uptake into upper body subcutaneous, lower body subcutaneous, and visceral fat allowed us to account for 98 +/- 6% of meal fatty acids 24 h after meal ingestion. We conclude that omental fat is a good surrogate for visceral fat and that abdominal subcutaneous fat depots are comparable with regard to meal fatty acid metabolic studies. Using [3H]triolein, we were able to account for virtually 100% of meal fatty acids 24 h after meal ingestion. These results support the meal fatty acid tracer model as a way to study the metabolic fate of dietary fat.