Molecular recognition specificity of Bacillus anthracis spore antibodies

The sensitivity and specificity of polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies raised against anthrax spore preparations has been assessed by Western blotting. None of the antibodies studied were completely specific in recognizing the anthrax spore surface. A polyclonal serum recognized a wide range of spore surface epitopes and demonstrated limited cross-reaction with the near-neighbour species Bacillus cereus spore surface. Two monoclonal antibodies studied demonstrated more extensive cross-reaction with distant-neighbour species B. globigii and B. subtilis. These monoclonal antibodies did not react with spore surface epitopes but did bind strongly to vegetative cell epitopes in all four Bacillus species studied.     

Analysis of HIV-induced autoantibodies to cryptic epitopes on human CD4.

Antilymphocyte antibodies, including autoantibodies to CD4, have been reported in AIDS patients and are postulated to contribute to T cell depletion and immunologic dysfunction. In this paper, we characterize and localize binding sites of human anti-CD4 autoantibodies from a number of HIV+ patients. Epitope mapping by ELISA and Western blotting, together with cross-competition experiments, showed that common autoepitopes were localized to at least two topographically separate sites on the fourth domain of sCD4. These sites were partially dependent on the carboxyl terminus of the soluble molecule and were not exposed on full length membrane CD4, even under denaturing Western blotting conditions. Peptide screening identified peptides from the fourth and third domains that were recognized by several, but not all, anti-CD4 serum samples. Soluble CD4 affinity-purified antibodies were predominantly IgG1 and were not induced to bind mCD4 after gp120 binding to T cells. Analysis of HIV seroconversion panels showed that the appearance of anti-CD4 antibodies followed HIV seroconversion by 6 to 12 months and paralleled anti-gp120 reactivity. This suggested a correlation between immune reactivity to envelope and anti-CD4 antibody production. Together, the data indicate that human anti-CD4 antibodies recognize cryptic conformational and linear epitopes on a cleaved form of CD4. These findings suggest that HIV may induce abnormal cleavage of full length CD4, thereby exposing immunogenic self epitopes normally hidden from humoral and cellular immune interactions. This model of abnormal processing of self Ag has general implications for autoantigen exposure in other autoimmune disorders.     

Module-specific antibodies against human connective tissue growth factor: utility for structural and functional analysis of the factor as related to chondrocytes

Connective tissue growth factor/hypertrophic chondrocyte specific gene product 24 (CTGF/Hcs24/CCN2) shows diverse functions in the process of endochondral ossification. It promotes not only the proliferation and differentiation of chondrocytes and osteoblasts in vitro, but also angiogenesis in vivo. The ctgf gene is a member of the gene family called CCN, and it encodes the characteristic 4-module structure of this family, with the protein containing IGFBP, VWC, TSP and CT modules. We raised several monoclonal antibodies and polyclonal antisera against CTGF, and located the epitopes in the modules by Western blotting. For mapping the epitopes, Brevibacillus-produced independent modules were utilized. As a result, at least 1 antibody or antiserum was prepared for the detection of each module in CTGF. Western blotting with these antibodies is expected to be useful for the analysis of CTGF fragmentation. Moreover, we examined the effects of these monoclonal antibodies on the biological functions of CTGF. One out of 3 humanized monoclonal antibodies was found to neutralize efficiently the stimulatory effect of CTGF on chondrocytic cell proliferation. This particular antibody bound to the CT module. In contrast, surprisingly, all of the 3 antibodies recognizing IGFBP, VWC and CT modules stimulated proteoglycan synthesis in chondrocytic cells. Together with previous findings, these results provide insight into the structural-functional relationships of CTGF in executing multiple functions.     

Studies on species cross-reactivity of hemopexin by use of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies

The extent of immunological cross-reactivity between hemopexins of four species (rat, human, rabbit and chicken) was assessed with four affinity purified polyclonal antibodies and three monoclonal antibodies using RIA, Western blotting and rocket immunoelectrophoresis. Neither the two monoclonal antibodies to rabbit hemopexin (Rb3D11 and Rb3H9), the monoclonal antibody (R4B3) to rat hemopexin nor any of the polyclonal antibodies showed shared antigenic determinants between avian and mammalian hemopexins as judged by RIA or rocket immunoelectrophoresis. Western blotting with polyclonal antibodies revealed some reactivity raising the possibility of a few shared, though distantly related, epitopes. Polyclonal antibodies, raised to the mammalian hemopexins cross-reacted to variable extents with the respective antigens by RIA, results paralleled by data obtained by Western blotting. Anti-rat monoclonal antibodies reacted only with rat hemopexin in Western blots and minimally with rabbit hemopexin in RIA. The anti-rabbit monoclonal antibodies recognized two distinct epitopes one of which is shared with human hemopexin and presumably highly conserved.     

Linear B-cell epitopes of the major core protein of human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2.

Nine murine monoclonal antibodies directed to the major core protein p24 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) were obtained and then tested by using an epitope mapping system (Pepscan) covering the whole p24HIV1 protein to characterize antigenic domains. Four different linear epitopes were identified. Monoclonal antibodies recognizing three of these epitopes also reacted to p26HIV2 in Western blotting (immunoblotting). A monoclonal antibody specific for the fourth epitope, located at position 179 to 188 of the gag polyprotein p55HIV1 (human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 3B strain), did not react with HIV type 2 (HIV-2) core proteins. The corresponding sequence is constant in all known HIV-2 and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) isolates, including a very divergent SIV strain from African green monkeys (SIVagm/tyo). This observation may be relevant to the phylogeny of primate lentiviruses. Two of the conserved epitopes might be immunogenic during natural infection and could therefore be used for diagnosis and prognosis purposes. These two epitopes are AAEWDRVHP and EIYKRWII, starting at positions 209 and 260 of the polyprotein p55HIV1, respectively.     

The apparent absence of lamin B1 and emerin in many tissue nuclei is due to epitope masking

Summary Immunolocalization studies have concluded that the nuclear membrane protein, emerin, is absent from many cell types and that lamin B1 is absent from adult heart and skeletal muscle. We now show that epitope masking in the nucleus is often responsible for failure to detect emerin and lamins in human, rat and pig tissues. Human heart cardiomyocyte nuclei were negative for lamin B1 using a commercial mAb, but were positive using two other lamin B1 antibodies, mAb8D1 and pAbB1-cbs. Rat hippocampal neuronal nuclei were immunostained by mAb8D1, but not pAbB1-cbs, while the commercial antibody stained only a subset. These data suggest that different regions of the lamin B1 molecule are masked in different tissues. Similarly, pig spleen had fewer emerin-positive nuclei than lung (5% vs. 32%), although their emerin content was similar by Western blotting. As mAbs against six epitopes gave the same result, the whole emerin molecule is either masked or redistributed in a subset of cells. Our findings argue that immunostaining evidence can be misleading for expression of nuclear envelope proteins. Problems with lamin B1 immunostaining can be avoided by using mAb8D1, but use of antibodies recognizing different epitopes may reveal cell-specific protein interactions in the nucleus.     

Cutting edge: soluble HLA-G1 triggers CD95/CD95 ligand-mediated apoptosis in activated CD8+ cells by interacting with CD8

The nonpolymorphic soluble HLA-G1 (sHLA-G1) isoform has been reported to be secreted by trophoblast cells at the materno-fetal interface, suggesting that it may act as immunomodulator during pregnancy. In this paper, we report that affinity-purified beta2-microglobulin-associated sHLA-G1 triggered apoptosis in activated, but not resting CD8+ peripheral blood cells. We demonstrate by Western blotting that sHLA-G1 enhanced CD95 ligand expression in activated CD8+ cells. Cytotoxicity was inhibited by preincubation of the cells with a CD95 antagonist mAb (ZB4) or a soluble recombinant CD95-Fc, indicating that apoptosis is mediated through the CD95/CD95 ligand pathway. Finally, we show that such sHLA-G1-induced apoptosis depends on the interaction with CD8 molecules, with cell death being blocked by various CD8 mAbs.     

GALECTIN-3 expression in differentiating human myeloid cells

Galectin-3 is an endogenous mammalian carbohydrate-binding protein with affinity for ABH group carbohydrate epitopes and polylactosamine glycans present on cell surface and extracellular matrix glycoproteins. It has been shown to play a role in cell differentiation, morphogenesis, adhesion and cell proliferation regulation. Progenitor cell proliferation in bone marrow depends on stem cell factors including those modulating their adhesion to the bone marrow stroma. The present study shows that the 32 kD galectin-3 is developmentally expressed in human myeloid cells and is strongly upregulated on the cell surface of late mature myeloid cells. Despite the fact that the expression of the galectin-3 is very low in CD34+ early myeloid cell, a 70 kD protein is found by Western blotting using antibodies specific to galectin-3, exclusively in those cells. Finally, exogenous human recombinant galectin-3 binds strongly to CD34+ early myeloid cells and emphasizes granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) driven proliferation in vitro.     

Epitope interactions of monoclonal antibodies targeting CD20 and their relationship to functional properties

Several novel anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies are currently in development with the aim of improving the treatment of B cell malignancies. Mutagenesis and epitope mapping studies have revealed differences between the CD20 epitopes recognized by these antibodies. Recently, X-ray crystallography studies confirmed that the Type I CD20 antibody rituximab and the Type II CD20 antibody obinutuzumab (GA101) differ fundamentally in their interaction with CD20 despite recognizing a partially overlapping epitope on CD20. The Type I CD20 antibodies rituximab and ofatumumab are known to bind to different epitopes. The differences suggest that the biological properties of these antibodies are not solely determined by their core epitope sequences, but also depend on other factors, such as the elbow hinge angle, the orientation of the bound antibody and differential effects mediated by the Fc region of the antibody. Taken together, these factors may explain differences in the preclinical properties and clinical efficacy of anti-CD20 antibodies.     

Monoclonal antibodies against the CD44 [In(Lu)-related p80], and Pgp-1 antigens in man recognize the Hermes class of lymphocyte homing receptors

An 85- to 95 kDa class of lymphocyte surface molecules, defined in man by antibodies of the Hermes series, is involved in lymphocyte binding to high endothelial venules and is likely of central importance in the process of lymphocyte homing. In this report, we have examined the relationship between these Hermes-defined "homing-receptors" and two other 80 to 95 kDa lymphocyte surface molecules that have been extensively studied--CD44 [In(Lu)-related p80] defined by mAb A1G3 and A3D8, and Pgp-1 defined by antibody IM7. Our findings indicate that, in man, similar or identical glycoprotein(s) are recognized by these independently and diversely obtained antibodies. All antibodies showed identical immunohistologic patterns of reactivity on a variety of lymphoid and nonlymphoid human tissues, and demonstrated similar bands on Western blots of both crude tonsil lymphocyte lysates and highly purified Hermes-1 Ag preparations. Similarly, purified CD44/p80 Ag from RBC and human serum bound Hermes-1. Preclearing of tonsil lysates with the Hermes-1 antibody removed antigenic activity for all antibodies. Cross-blocking experiments demonstrated that A3D8, IM7 (anti-Pgp-1), and Hermes-2 antibodies recognize overlapping epitopes. Finally, expression of the epitopes defined by the Hermes-1, Hermes-3, H2-7, and H3-61 antibodies on RBC was shown to be regulated by the In(Lu) gene. These findings unify several different lines of investigation, and suggest the possibility that the CD44/Pgp-1/Hermes class of molecules may serve as cell-cell or cell-substrate adhesion/recognition elements for both hematolymphoid and non-hematolymphoid cell types.     

Human brain pyridoxal-5'-phosphate phosphatase: production and characterization of monoclonal antibodies

We cloned and expressed human pyridoxal-5\'-phosphate (PLP) phosphatase, the coenzymatically active form of vitamin B6, in Escherichia coli using pET15b vector. Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) were generated against purified human brain PLP phosphatase in mice, and four antibodies recognizing different epitopes were obtained, one of which inhibited PLP phosphatase. The binding affinities of these four mAbs to PLP phosphatase, as determined using biosensor technology, showed that they had similar binding affinities. Using the anti-PLP phosphatase antibodies as probes, we investigated their cross-reactivities in various mammalian and human tissues and cell lines. The immunoreactive bands obtained on Western blots had molecular masses of ca. 33 kDa. Similarly fractionated extracts of several mammalian cell lines all produced a single band of molecular mass 33 kDa. We believe that these PLP phosphatase mAbs could be used as valuable immunodiagnostic reagents for the detection, identification, and characterization of various neurological diseases related to vitamin B6 abnormalities.     

沉默DAXX基因表达促进人卵巢癌细胞凋亡和衰老

DAXX是Fas死亡结构域相关蛋白(Fas death-associated protein, DAXX),可与Fas死亡受体的死亡域结合.通过激活c-Jun NH2末端激酶通路,DAXX增强Fas介导的凋亡,同时也增强转录生长因子β依赖的凋亡.本研究通过免疫组化检测人正常卵巢组织和卵巢癌组织中DAXX蛋白表达,然后通过Tet-on诱导体系构建DAXX基因沉默的慢病毒,感染卵巢癌细胞后,加入嘌呤霉素筛选稳定表达的OV2008细胞,四环素诱导DAXX基因沉默,通过免疫印迹和定量PCR检测DAXX基因干扰效果,MTT检测细胞增殖,克隆形成实验检测克隆形成能力,免疫印迹和免疫荧光方法检测DNA损伤蛋白的变化,SA-β-gal检测细胞衰老.结果表明,在人正常卵巢组织中DAXX低表达,而在人卵巢癌组织中DAXX高表达,随着四环素浓度的增加DAXX的表达量降低,DAXX基因沉默抑制卵巢癌OV2008细胞的增殖和克隆形成. 免疫印迹结果显示,DAXX基因沉默可诱导DNA损伤相关蛋白p-H2AX和p-CHK2高表达.SA-β-gal检测结果表明,DAXX基因沉默可诱导OV2008细胞发生衰老,免疫印迹检测发现,p21和p27在 DAXX沉默的卵巢癌细胞中高表达.综上结果,DAXX沉默可以抑制卵巢癌细胞的增殖和克隆形成,同时也促进卵巢癌细胞发生DNA损伤和衰老.该研究为卵巢癌的基因治疗提供新的思路.     

Functional evidence for three distinct and independently inhibitable adhesion activities mediated by the human integrin VLA-4. Correlation with distinct alpha 4 epitopes.

The human integrin VLA (very late activation antigens)-4 (CD49d/CD29), the leukocyte receptor for both the CS-1 region of plasma fibronectin (Fn) and the vascular cell surface adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1), also mediates homotypic aggregation upon triggering with specific anti-VLA-4 monoclonal antibody (mAb). Epitope mapping of this integrin on the human B-cell line Ramos, performed with a wide panel of anti-VLA-4 mAb by both cross-competitive cell binding and protease sensitivity assays, revealed the existence of three topographically distinct epitopes on the alpha 4 chain, referred to as epitopes A-C. By testing this panel of anti-VLA-4 mAb for inhibition of cell binding to both a 38-kDa Fn fragment containing CS-1 and to VCAM-1, as well as for induction and inhibition of VLA-4 mediated homotypic cell adhesion, we have found overlapping but different functional properties associated with each epitope. Anti-alpha 4 mAb recognizing epitope B inhibited cell attachment to both Fn and VCAM-1, whereas mAb against epitope A did not block VCAM-1 binding and only partially inhibited binding to Fn. In contrast, mAb directed to epitope C did not affect cell adhesion to either of the two VLA-4 ligands. All mAb directed to site A, as well as a subgroup of mAb recognizing epitope B (called B2), were able to induce cell aggregation, but this effect was not exerted by mAb specific to site C and by a subgroup against epitope B (called B1). Moreover, although anti-epitope C and anti-epitope B1 mAb did not trigger aggregation, those mAb blocked aggregation induced by anti-epitope A or B2 mAb. In addition, anti-epitope A mAb blocked B2-induced aggregation, and conversely, anti-epitope B2 mAb blocked A-induced aggregation. Further evidence for multiple VLA-4 functions is that anti-Fn and anti-VCAM-1 antibodies inhibited binding to Fn or to VCAM-1, respectively, but did not affect VLA-4-mediated aggregation. In summary, we have demonstrated that there are at least three different VLA-4-mediated adhesion functions, we have defined three distinct VLA-4 epitopes, and we have correlated these epitopes with the different functions of VLA-4.     

Two desired epitopes of cTnI benefit for preparation of standardized monoclonal antibodies

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is one of the most severe cardiovascular diseases in humans, often resulting in unexpected death. Early detection is critical for patient survival. Sandwich ELISA is a common method for the detection of AMI. However, ELISA kits from different manufacturers can give different results, in part because of the lack of standardized epitopes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to find two standardized epitopes. We predicted two antigen epitopes and respectively immunize mice to manufacture standardized monoclonal antibodies. Eight monoclonal antibodies were prepared. Monoclonal antibodies 7D2 and 2C3 were selected with high affinity, and their characteristics were explored. The results show that monoclonal antibodies 7D2 and 2C3 can both bind to various modified forms and complexes of cardiac troponin I (cTnI), were not cross‐reaction with related antigens of normal human serum and can be paired. Therefore, we deem epitopes 30 to 42 and 77 to 89 standardized epitopes.     

Positive reactions on Western blots do not necessarily indicate the epitopes on antigens are continuous

Epitope mapping (identification of an antigenic site recognized by an antibody) is an important component of vaccine development and immunological assays. It is widely accepted that in Western blots, antibodies react exclusively with continuous epitopes: discontinuous epitopes are assumed to be irreversibly destroyed by electrophoresis under the denaturing conditions used for sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Here, we demonstrate that the epitopes recognized by four different monoclonal antibodies were identified as discontinuous epitopes when characterized by radioimmunoprecipitation assays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, yet each of these antibodies reacted with the corresponding antigen on Western blots. Reaction on Western blots may be due to epitope renaturation during or after the transfer of the protein to a membrane. Therefore, positive reactions on Western blots do not necessarily indicate that epitopes are continuous and this caveat should be kept in mind while characterizing them.     

The antibody repertoire to proteins of Mycobacterium leprae. Genetic influences at the antigen and epitope level.

The effects of both H-2 and non-H-2 genes on the antibody response to the proteins of Mycobacterium leprae were investigated. Using a B10 series of congenic mice we found that the repertoire of antibody responses was under H-2 gene control, and that non-H2 genes were also involved. By Western blotting, differences in the number and m.w. of proteins recognised by mice of different genetic background were apparent. Such differences were also reflected in the total antibody response to a soluble extract of M. leprae (M. leprae sonicate), as measured by ELISA. Concentrating on one particular Ag, the 65-kDa heat shock protein, we found that all strains of mice developed antibodies following immunization with the purified recombinant protein, although there was a continuous distribution in the titer of antibodies obtained, with differences between individual strains indicating both H-2 and non-H-2 effects. Using a library of overlapping peptides based on the amino acid sequence of this protein, we have mapped the B cell epitopes in the different strains of mice. H-2 genes had no effect on the structure and number of epitopes recognized, although this was influenced by non-H-2 genes. There was a high level of concordance between actual epitopes recognized and those predicted by calculations of antigenic index, and B cell epitopes were located in similar positions to previously determined T cell epitopes.     

Molecular recognition specificity of Bacillus globigii spore antibodies

Western blotting methods have been used to assess the specificity of polyclonal antibodies raised against Bacillus globigii spore and vegetative cell preparations. None of the antibodies studied were completely species-specific in their recognition of spore surface epitopes. One polyclonal serum recognized several spore surface epitopes and demonstrated limited cross-reaction with the spore surface of the near-neighbour species B. subtilis. A second polyclonal serum, raised against aged spore antigens, recognized damaged spore epitopes primarily. Both of these antibodies also cross-reacted with vegetative cell epitopes present in all four Bacillus species (B. globigii, B. subtilis, B. cereus and B. anthracis) studied.     

Human liver catalase: cloning,expression and characterization of monoclonal antibodies

We isolated a cDNA encoding liver catalase from a human liver cDNA library. The cDNA had a high degree of sequence similarity to the corresponding enzyme from other sources. It was expressed in E. coli using the pET15b vector. The protein produced was enzymatically active after purification, and its kinetic parameters closely resembled those of other mammalian catalases. Monoclonal antibodies were generated against the purified catalase; six antibodies recognizing different epitopes were obtained, one of which inhibited the enzyme. The cross reactions of the antibodies with brain catalases from human and other mammalian tissues were investigated, and all the immunoreactive bands obtained on Western blots had molecular masses of about 58 kDa. Similarly fractionated extracts of several mammalian cell lines all gave a single band of molecular mass 58 kDa. These results indicate that mammalian livers and human cell lines contain only one major type of immunologically reactive catalase, even though some of catalases have been previously reported to differ in certain properties.     

Identification and characterization of fully human anti-CD22 monoclonal antibodies

CD22 is a member of the B cell receptor family and is implicated in B cell function and development. It is expressed on multiple forms of B cell lymphoma and is an attractive cancer therapeutic target. We report here the identification of two fully human anti-CD22 antibodies using phage display methodology. Both antibodies exhibit specific binding to cell surface-associated CD22 in multiple B cell lines. Through ELISA using mammalian cell-expressed sub-domains of CD22 as binding antigen, we mapped the binding epitopes of the newly identified CD22 antibodies to be within the Ig-like domains 5 to 7 of CD22. Their epitopes do not overlap with those of several therapeutic antibodies currently in preclinical or clinical development. These antibodies have potential as cancer therapeutic candidates and research reagents.