Targeting Apoptosis and Multiple Signaling Pathways with Icariside II in Cancer Cells

Cancer is the second leading cause of deaths worldwide. Despite concerted efforts to improve the current therapies, the prognosis of cancer remains dismal. Highly selective or specific blocking of only one of the signaling pathways has been associated with limited or sporadic responses. Using targeted agents to inhibit multiple signaling pathways has emerged as a new paradigm for anticancer treatment. Icariside II, a flavonol glycoside, is one of the major components of Traditional Chinese Medicine Herba epimedii and possesses multiple biological and pharmacological properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-osteoporosis, anti-oxidant, anti-aging, and anticancer activities. Recently, the anticancer activity of Icariside II has been extensively investigated. Here, in this review, our aim is to give our perspective on the current status of Icariside II, and discuss its natural sources, anticancer activity, molecular targets and the mechanisms of action with specific emphasis on apoptosis pathways which may help the further design and conduct of preclinical and clinical trials.Icariside II has been found to induce apoptosis in various human cancer cell lines of different origin by targeting multiple signaling pathways including STAT3, PI3K/AKT, MAPK/ERK, COX-2/PGE2 and β-Catenin which are frequently deregulated in cancers, suggesting that this collective activity rather than just a single effect may play an important role in developing Icariside II into a potential lead compound for anticancer therapy. This review suggests that Icariside II provides a novel opportunity for treatment of cancers, but additional investigations and clinical trials are still required to fully understand the mechanism of therapeutic effects to further validate it in anti-tumor therapy.     

Delphinidin Reduces Cell Proliferation and Induces Apoptosis of Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Cells by Targeting EGFR/VEGFR2 Signaling Pathways

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR2) have emerged as two effective clinical targets for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In the present study, we found that delphinidin, an anthocyanidin, present in pigmented fruits and vegetables, is a potent inhibitor of both EGFR and VEGFR2 in NSCLC cells that overexpress EGFR/VEGFR2. Using these cells, we next determined the effects of delphinidin on cell growth and apoptosis in vitro and on tumor growth and angiogenesis in vivo. Delphinidin (5-60 µM) treatment of NSCLC cells inhibited the activation of PI3K, and phosphorylation of AKT and MAPKs. Additionally, treatment of NSCLC cells with delphinidin resulted in inhibition of cell growth without having significant toxic effects on normal human bronchial epithelial cells. Specifically, treatment of NCI-H441 and SK-MES-1 cells with delphindin (5-60 µM) resulted in (i) cleavage of PARP protein, (ii) activation of caspase-3 and -9, (iii) downregulation of anti-apoptotic proteins (Bcl2, Bcl-xL and Mcl-1), (iv) upregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins (Bax and Bak), and (v) decreased expression of PCNA and cyclin D1. Furthermore, in athymic nude mice subcutaneously implanted with human NSCLC cells, delphinidin treatment caused a (i) significant inhibition of tumor growth, (ii) decrease in the expression of markers for cell proliferation (Ki67 and PCNA) and angiogenesis (CD31 and VEGF), and (iii) induction of apoptosis, when compared with control mice. Based on these observations, we suggest that delphinidin, alone or as an adjuvant to current therapies, could be used for the management of NSCLC, especially those that overexpress EGFR and VEGFR2.     

Targeting Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen and Its Protein Interactions Induces Apoptosis in Multiple Myeloma Cells

Multiple myeloma is a hematological cancer that is considered incurable despite advances in treatment strategy during the last decade. Therapies targeting single pathways are unlikely to succeed due to the heterogeneous nature of the malignancy. Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is a multifunctional protein essential for DNA replication and repair that is often overexpressed in cancer cells. Many proteins involved in the cellular stress response interact with PCNA through the five amino acid sequence AlkB homologue 2 PCNA-interacting motif (APIM). Thus inhibiting PCNA’s protein interactions may be a good strategy to target multiple pathways simultaneously. We initially found that overexpression of peptides containing the APIM sequence increases the sensitivity of cancer cells to contemporary therapeutics. Here we have designed a cell-penetrating APIM-containing peptide, ATX-101, that targets PCNA and show that it has anti-myeloma activity. We found that ATX-101 induced apoptosis in multiple myeloma cell lines and primary cancer cells, while bone marrow stromal cells and primary healthy lymphocytes were much less sensitive. ATX-101-induced apoptosis was caspase-dependent and cell cycle phase-independent. ATX-101 also increased multiple myeloma cells’ sensitivity against melphalan, a DNA damaging agent commonly used for treatment of multiple myeloma. In a xenograft mouse model, ATX-101 was well tolerated and increased the anti-tumor activity of melphalan. Therefore, targeting PCNA by ATX-101 may be a novel strategy in multiple myeloma treatment.     

雷公藤甲素诱导胰腺癌细胞凋亡

目的：观察雷公藤甲素对胰腺癌细胞BxPC-3和PANC-1生长抑制及诱导细胞凋亡作用,探讨雷公藤甲素抗胰腺癌的机制。方法：雷公藤甲素处理BxPC-3和PANC—1细胞后,用M1rr法检测细胞的生长抑制,用流式细胞术检测细胞的凋亡率,用罗丹明123和DCFH—DA染色方法测定细胞线粒体膜跨膜电位变化和活性氧（ROS）的产生,用Western印迹检测Bcl-2、Bax蛋白表达的变化。结果：雷公藤甲素对胰腺癌细胞BxPC-3和PANC—1具有生长抑制和诱导细胞凋亡的作用,且呈时间和剂量依赖关系;处理72h后,胰腺癌细胞线粒体跨膜电位明显下降,Bax表达上调,Bcl-2表达下降。结论：雷公藤甲素能有效抑制胰腺癌细胞增殖,通过增强线粒体通透性诱导细胞凋亡。     

西达本胺诱导胰腺癌细胞凋亡

目的：观察西达本胺对胰腺癌细胞BxPC-3和PANC-1生长抑制及诱导细胞凋亡作用,探讨西达本胺抗胰腺癌的机制。方法：西达本胺处理BxPC-3和PANC-1细胞后,用流式细胞术检测细胞的凋亡率,用罗丹明123和DCFH—DA染色方法测定细胞线粒体膜跨膜电位变化和活性氧（ROS）的产生,用Western印迹检测Bcl-2家族和γH2AX蛋白表达的变化。结果：西达本胺对胰腺癌细胞BxPC-3和PANC-1具有生长抑制和诱导细胞凋亡的作用,且呈时间和剂量依赖关系;处理72h后,胰腺癌细胞内ROS产生增强导致DNA损伤发生,且线粒体跨膜电位明显下降;促凋亡蛋白Bax的表达,抑制抑凋亡蛋白Bcl-2和Mcl—1的表达。结论：西达本胺具有抑制胰腺癌细胞增殖,诱导细胞凋亡的作用;西达本胺增强胰腺癌细胞内ROS的产生并导致DNA损伤,最终诱导细胞凋亡的发生。     

Non-Thermal Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Preferentially Induces Apoptosis in p53-Mutated Cancer Cells by Activating ROS Stress-Response Pathways

Non-thermal atmospheric pressure plasma (NTAPP) is an ionized gas at room temperature and has potential as a new apoptosis-promoting cancer therapy that acts by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, it is imperative to determine its selectivity and standardize the components and composition of NTAPP. Here, we designed an NTAPP-generating apparatus combined with a He gas feeding system and demonstrated its high selectivity toward p53-mutated cancer cells. We first determined the proper conditions for NTAPP exposure to selectively induce apoptosis in cancer cells. The apoptotic effect of NTAPP was greater for p53-mutated cancer cells; artificial p53 expression in p53-negative HT29 cells decreased the pro-apoptotic effect of NTAPP. We also examined extra- and intracellular ROS levels in NTAPP-treated cells to deduce the mechanism of NTAPP action. While NTAPP-mediated increases in extracellular nitric oxide (NO) did not affect cell viability, intracellular ROS increased under NTAPP exposure and induced apoptotic cell death. This effect was dose-dependently reduced following treatment with ROS scavengers. NTAPP induced apoptosis even in doxorubicin-resistant cancer cell lines, demonstrating the feasibility of NTAPP as a potent cancer therapy. Collectively, these results strongly support the potential of NTAPP as a selective anticancer treatment, especially for p53-mutated cancer cells.     

Celastrol Induces Autophagy by Targeting AR/miR-101 in Prostate Cancer Cells

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved process responsible for the degradation and recycling of cytoplasmic components through autolysosomes. Targeting AR axis is a standard strategy for prostate cancer treatment; however, the role of AR in autophagic processes is still not fully understood. In the present study, we found that AR played a negative role in AR degrader celastrol-induced autophagy. Knockdown of AR in AR-positive prostate cancer cells resulted in enhanced autophagy. Ectopic expression of AR in AR-negative prostate cancer cells, or gain of function of the AR signaling in AR-positive cells, led to suppression of autophagy. Since miR-101 is an inhibitor of autophagy and its expression was decreased along with AR in the process of celastrol-induced autophagy, we hypothesize that AR inhibits autophagy through transactivation of miR-101. AR binding site was defined in the upstream of miR-101 gene by luciferase reporter and ChIP assays. MiR-101 expression correlated with AR status in prostate cancer cell lines. The inhibition of celastrol-induced autophagy by AR was compromised by blocking miR-101; while transfection of miR-101 led to inhibition of celastrol-induced autophagy in spite of AR depletion. Furthermore, mutagenesis of the AR binding site in miR-101 gene led to decreased suppression of autophagy by AR. Finally, autophagy inhibition by miR-101 mimic was found to enhance the cytotoxic effect of celastrol in prostate cancer cells. Our results demonstrate that AR inhibits autophagy via transactivation of miR-101, thus combination of miR-101 mimics with celastrol may represent a promising therapeutic approach for treating prostate cancer.     

Isoegomaketone Induces Apoptosis through Caspase-Dependent and Caspase-Independent Pathways in Human DLD1 Cells

Isoegomaketone (IK) is an essential oil component of Perilla frutescens (L.), but the mechanism by which IK induces apoptosis has never been studied. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the IK-induced apoptotic pathway in DLD1 human colon cancer cells. We observed that IK treatment over 24 h significantly inhibited cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. We also found that IK triggered cleavage of PARP. Moreover, IK treatment resulted in cleavage of caspase-8, -9, and -3 in a dose- and time-dependent manner. IK treatment also resulted in cleavage of Bid and translocation of Bax, and triggered the release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria to the cytoplasm. Furthermore, it resulted in the translocation of apoptosis inducing factor (AIF), a caspase-independent mitochondrial apoptosis factor, from the mitochondria into the nucleus. Overall, these results suggest that IK induces apoptosis through caspase-dependent and capase-independent pathways in DLD1 cells.     

华蟾素诱导人胃癌MKN-45细胞凋亡

本研究旨在探讨华蟾素诱导人胃癌MKN-45细胞凋亡及其机制.分别用终浓度0、60、70、80μg/L的华蟾素作用于人胃癌MKN-45细胞48 h,采用激光共聚焦显微镜观察细胞形态结构,流式细胞术检测细胞凋亡率、线粒体膜电位,RT-qPCR和Western blot分别检测Bax、Bcl-2、Cy tC、Caspase 9和Caspase 3基因表达水平.结果显示,与对照组相比,0、60、70、80μg/L的华蟾素作用人胃癌MKN-45细胞48h,呈现细胞皱缩、细胞核裂解、染色质凝集等形态学变化,早期凋亡细胞和晚期凋亡细胞所占百分比均显著增加,线粒体膜电位(ΔΨm)显著降低.Bax、Cyt C、Caspase 9和Caspase 3基因的mRNA及蛋白表达水平随着药物浓度的升高均显著升高(P＜0.01),Bcl-2基因mRNA及蛋白表达水平随着药物浓度的升高显著降低(P＜0.01),提示华蟾素可通过上调Bax、Cyt C、Caspase 9和Caspase 3基因表达,下调Bcl-2基因表达诱导人胃癌MKN-45细胞凋亡.     

Lipocalin-2 Induces Apoptosis in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells Through Activation of Mitochondria Pathways

Lipocalin 2 (LCN2) is a secreted, iron-binding glycoprotein that is abnormally expressed in some malignant human cancers. However, the roles of LCN2 in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells are unknown. In this study, we suggested the LCN2 and LCN2R were weak detected in the HCC cell lines, LCN2 and LCN2R were found to be down-regulated in tumor tissues in 16 HCC patients. MTT, DAPI, TUNEL, and flow cytometry analyses revealed that LCN2 overexpression dramatically inhibited cell viability, induced apoptosis features of cell-cycle arrest in sub-G1 phase, in DNA fragmentation, and in condensation of chromatin in Huh-7 and SK-Hep-1 cells. Western blots were used to detect the activation of caspase, pro-apoptosis, and anti-apoptosis protein expression in overexpress-LCN2 HCC cells. LCN2-induced apoptosis was characterized by cleavage of caspase-9, -8, -3, and PARP protein, and a reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). Furthermore, LCN2 also enhanced the down-regulated Bcl-2 and up-regulated the expression of Bax. In addition, our experiments with caspase inhibitors LEHD-FMK and IETD-FMK prevent LCN2-induced apoptosis. We also demonstrated that treatment of overexpress-LCN2 HCC cells with the LCN2 neutralized antibody also significantly attenuated LCN2-induced cell apoptosis. These findings indicate that LCN2 overexpression can effectively induce apoptosis of HCC cells and may be used as a potent therapy against human HCC.     

Tetrandrine Induces Mitochondria-Mediated Apoptosis in Human Gastric Cancer BGC-823 Cells

Tetrandrine, a bis-benzylisoquinoline alkaloid isolated from the dried root of Hang-Fang-Chi ( Stephania tetrandra S. Moore), has been reported to possess anti-cancer effects on many tumors. In this study, we investigated tetrandrine-induced apoptosis on human gastric cancer BGC-823 cells in vitro and in vivo. The results showed that tetrandrine significantly inhibited cell viability in a dose- and time-dependent manner and induced apoptosis. It increased the apoptosis; upregulation of Bax, Bak, and Bad; and downregulation of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xl in BGC-823 cells. Moreover, tetrandrine increased the activation of caspase-3 and -9, release of cytochrome c, and upregulation of apaf-1, suggesting that tetrandrine-induced apoptosis was related to the mitochondrial pathway. Meanwhile, pretreatment with the pan-caspase inhibitor z-VAD-fmk in BGC-823 cells reduced tetrandrine-induced apoptosis by blocking activation of caspases. Furthermore, tetrandrine effectively inhibited tumor growth via apoptosis induction, which was verified by immunohistochemical analysis in a nude mouse xenograft model. Taken together, we concluded that tetrandrine significantly inhibited the proliferation of gastric cancer BGC-823 cells through mitochondria-dependent apoptosis, which may play a promising role in gastric cancer therapy.     

Cancer Cells Hijack PRC2 to Modify Multiple Cytokine Pathways

Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) is an epigenetic regulator induced in many cancers. It is thought to drive tumorigenesis by repressing division, stemness, and/or developmental regulators. Cancers evade immune detection, and diverse immune regulators are perturbed in different tumors. It is unclear how such cell-specific effects are coordinated. Here, we show a profound and cancer-selective role for PRC2 in repressing multiple cytokine pathways. We find that PRC2 represses hundreds of IFNγ stimulated genes (ISGs), cytokines and cytokine receptors. This target repertoire is significantly broadened in cancer vs non-cancer cells, and is distinct in different cancer types. PRC2 is therefore a higher order regulator of the immune program in cancer cells. Inhibiting PRC2 with either RNAi or EZH2 inhibitors activates cytokine/cytokine receptor promoters marked with bivalent H3K27me3/H3K4me3 chromatin, and augments responsiveness to diverse immune signals. PRC2 inhibition rescues immune gene induction even in the absence of SWI/SNF, a tumor suppressor defective in ~20% of human cancers. This novel PRC2 function in tumor cells could profoundly impact the mechanism of action and efficacy of EZH2 inhibitors in cancer treatment.     

miR-29a靶向调控PDGFB促进非小细胞肺癌细胞凋亡

为了探究miR-29a对非小细胞肺癌细胞增殖和凋亡的影响及分子机制,本研究通过荧光定量PCR检测肺癌组织、癌旁组织、肺癌细胞以及人正常肺支气管上皮细胞BEAS-2B中miR-29a的表达,在肺癌A549转染miR-29a mimics后,使用荧光定量PCR和CCK-8法分别检测miR-29a的表达以及各组细胞的活力,使用流式细胞术检测A549细胞凋亡;通过荧光定量PCR检测肺癌组织、癌旁组织PDGFB m RNA的表达,采用Western blot检测PDGFB蛋白的表达;使用双荧光素酶报告基因检测miR-29a可能的靶基因;在肺癌A549细胞转染miR-29a mimics后继续转染PDGFB过表达质粒,通过qPCR和Western blotting分别检测PDGFB mRNA和蛋白的表达。结果表明,与癌旁组织相比,miR-29a在肺癌组织的表达显著下调(p<0.01),PDGFB在肺癌组织的表达显著增加(p<0.01);转染miR-29a mimics后,肺癌A549细胞中miR-29a表达显著增加(p<0.01);CCK-8法结果显示miR-29a mimics组A549肺癌细胞在24 h和48 h后细胞增值率较miR-NC对照组显著降低(p<0.01);流式细胞术结果显示miR-29a mimics组的细胞凋亡率较miR-NC对照组显著增加(p<0.01);与miR-NC+PDGFB 3’UTR WT组相比,miR-29a mimics+PDGFB 3’UTR WT组的荧光强度显著降低(p<0.01);荧光定量PCR和Western blotting显示miR-29a mimics+PDGFB组PDGFB m RNA和蛋白表达量与miR-29a mimics+vector组相比显著增加(p<0.01)。本研究结果表明miR-29a在肺癌组织和肺癌细胞株中低表达,及抑制PDGFB的表达并且促进肺癌细胞凋亡。     

白花蛇舌草提取物诱导人胃癌MKN-45细胞凋亡

为探究白花蛇舌草提取物对人胃癌MKN-45细胞凋亡的影响.用不同浓度的白花蛇舌草提取物处理MKN-45细胞,然后在光学显微镜和激光共聚焦显微镜下观察数量和形态.流式细胞仪检测细胞凋亡率,RT-qPCR和Western Blot检测凋亡相关基因Bax和Bcl-2的mRNA和蛋白表达水平.结果表明,不同浓度的白花蛇舌草提取物处理48 h后,在显微镜下观察到细胞体积缩小、细胞核裂解和染色质形态变化.细胞凋亡率随着药物浓度的增加而增加,用30 μg/mL白花蛇舌草提取物处理后细胞凋亡率达到23.6％,Bax基因表达水平显著增加,Bcl-2基因表达水平显著降低.综上所述,白花蛇舌草提取物可诱导人胃癌MKN-45细胞凋亡,具有潜在的医学和药用价值.     

Knockdown of LRP/LR Induces Apoptosis in Breast and Oesophageal Cancer Cells

Cancer is a global burden due to high incidence and mortality rates and is ranked the second most diagnosed disease amongst non-communicable diseases in South Africa. A high expression level of the 37kDa/67kDa laminin receptor (LRP/LR) is one characteristic of cancer cells. This receptor is implicated in the pathogenesis of cancer cells by supporting tumor angiogenesis, metastasis and especially for this study, the evasion of apoptosis. In the current study, the role of LRP/LR on cellular viability of breast MCF-7, MDA-MB 231 and WHCO1 oesophageal cancer cells was investigated. Western blot analysis revealed that total LRP expression levels of MCF-7, MDA-MB 231 and WHCO1 were significantly downregulated by targeting LRP mRNA using siRNA-LAMR1. This knockdown of LRP/LR resulted in a significant decrease of viability in the breast and oesophageal cancer cells as determined by an MTT assay. Transfection of MDA-MB 231 cells with esiRNA-RPSA directed against a different region of the LRP mRNA had similar effects on LRP/LR expression and cell viability compared to siRNA-LAMR1, excluding an off-target effect of siRNA-LAMR1. This reduction in cellular viability is as a consequence of apoptosis induction as indicated by the exposure of the phosphatidylserine protein on the surface of breast MCF-7, MDA-MB 231 and oesophageal WHCO1 cancer cells, respectively, detected by an Annexin-V/FITC assay as well as nuclear morphological changes observed post-staining with Hoechst. These observations indicate that LRP/LR is crucial for the maintenance of cellular viability of breast and oesophageal cancer cells and recommend siRNA technology targeting LRP expression as a possible novel alternative technique for breast and oesophageal cancer treatment.     

Myrtucommulone‐A Induces both Extrinsic and Intrinsic Apoptotic Pathways in Cancer Cells

Myrtucommulone‐A is the active compound derived from Myrtus communis. The molecular targets of myrtucommulone‐A is widely unknown, which impedes its potential therapeutic use. In this study, we demonstrated the cytotoxicity of MC‐A and its potential to induce apoptosis in cancer cells. Myrtucommulone‐A was also found to be antiproliferative and strongly inhibited cancer cell migration. Eighty four apoptotic pathway genes were used to assess the effect of myrtucommulone‐A on cancer cells. Myrtucommulone‐A mediated an increase in apoptotic genes including Fas, FasL, Gadd45a, Tnf, Tnfsf12, Trp53, and caspase 4. The increase in myrtucommulone‐A dose (25 μM versus 6.25 μM) also upregulated the expression of genes, which are involved mainly in apoptosis, regulation of apoptosis, role of mitochondria in apoptotic signaling, cytokine activity, and tumor necrosis factor signaling. Our data indicate that myrtucommulone‐A could be utilized as a potential therapeutic compound with its molecular targets in apoptotic pathways.