Private and Public Decisions in Social Dilemmas: Evidence from Children's Behavior

Are selfish impulses less likely to be pursued when decisions are publicly observable? Is the presence of peers a potential solution to social dilemmas? In this paper we report data on the self-control decisions of children aged 6 to 11 who participated in games that require one to resist a selfish impulse for several minutes in order to benefit others. In Public Condition children make decisions in public view of the group of other participants, while in Private Condition they have the possibility to decide privately. We find that children aged 9 and higher are better able to resist selfish impulses in public environments. Younger children, however, display no such effect. Further, we find self-control substantially impacted by group size. When decisions are public, self-control is better in larger groups, while in private condition the opposite holds.     

Rural Bushmeat Consumption Within Multiple-use Protected Areas: Qualitative Evidence from Southwest Madagascar

Ensuring the sustainability of bushmeat consumption is critical for both biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation in tropical developing countries, yet we know little about the role of hunting and bushmeat consumption in the daily lives of rural communities. We provide the first detailed, qualitative examination of bushmeat hunting activities conducted by a rural community within one of Madagascar’s new, multiple-use protected areas, in order to inform appropriate management strategies. Results suggest that most species are eaten, but that few are favoured above domestic meat. Hunting is generally a secondary pursuit, carried out opportunistically during the course of other activities, although its importance does increase in times of food stress. Management focused on increasing domestic meat availability and directing hunting effort away from sensitive species may improve the sustainability of hunting, but development interventions to reduce forest dependence may be required to promote conservation and poverty alleviation simultaneously.     

负债融资对公立医院固定资产过度投资影响实证研究 ——以B地区公立医院为例

目的 实证分析公立医院负债融资对固定资产过度投资的影响。方法 结合公立医院所面临的制度背景,提出理论假设,并构建多元回归实证模型,以B地区公立医院的数据进行实证检验。结果 银行借款和应付账款对过度投资有显著性影响,而预付账款没有影响。结论 银行借款融资不能抑制公立医院的过度投资行为,反而是公立医院的过度投资行为重要诱因,尤其是对于大型三级公立医院来说,银行借款不仅直接为其过度投资提供资金来源,而且银行借款的杠杆收益还增加医院的自由现金流量,引发自由现金流量过度投资;应付账款能够有效抑制公立医院的过度投资行为;研究结果提示政府应当从打破公立医院垄断地位和加强公立医院商业银行借款监管两方面着手为债务治理效应创造良好环境。     

Middle school transition and body weight outcomes: Evidence from Arkansas Public Schoolchildren

There is evidence that middle school transition adversely affects educational and psychological outcomes of pre-teen children, but little is known about the impacts of middle school transition on other aspects of health. In this article, we estimate the impact of middle school transition on the body mass index (BMI) of public schoolchildren in Arkansas, United States. Using an instrumental variable approach, we find that middle school transition in grade 6 led to a moderate decrease of 0.04 standard deviations in BMI z-scores for all students. Analysis by subsample indicated that this result was driven by boys (0.06–0.07 standard deviations) and especially by non-minority boys (0.09 standard deviations). We speculate that the changing levels of physical activities associated with middle school transition provide the most reasonable explanation for this result.     

Bacterial Choices for the Consumption of Multiple Resources for Current and Future Needs

Microorganisms differ in their effectiveness in uptake and selection of substances that they bring in from the environment. They also differ in how they balance the allocation of nutrients for immediate and for delayed use. Moreover, they may not take up resources as fast as they seemingly could, and they may extrude derivatives of substances just pumped in. A good deal of these apparent choices must reside in the uptake systems and the linkage of these with the cell’s intermediate metabolism. An important feature is that a resource may vary in concentration from time to time, nutrient to nutrient, and habitat to habitat. This variation must have been critical to the evolution of regulatory processes. Some possibilities for the combined uptake and consumption are considered for substrates serving the same (homologous) and different (heterologous) roles for the bacterium. From the membrane transport processes diagrammed in Fig. 1c and Fig. 2 and corresponding computer program given in Appendix A, the combined effect of uptake processes and cell growth can be studied. The model can be modified for various alternate models to study the possible control of cellular uptake and metabolism for the range of ecological roles of the bacterium.     

Effects of Mood Inductions by Meal Ambiance and Moderate Alcohol Consumption on Endocannabinoids and N-Acylethanolamines in Humans: A Randomized Crossover Trial

BackgroundThe endocannabinoid system is suggested to play a regulatory role in mood. However, the response of circulating endocannabinoids (ECs) to mood changes has never been tested in humans. In the present study, we examined the effects of mood changes induced by ambiance and moderate alcohol consumption on plasma ECs 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), anandamide (AEA), and some N-acylethanolamine (NAE) congeners in humans.MethodsHealthy women (n = 28) participated in a randomized cross-over study. They consumed sparkling white wine (340 mL; 30 g alcohol) or alcohol-free sparkling white wine (340 mL; <2 g alcohol) as part of a standard evening meal in a room with either a pleasant or an unpleasant ambiance.ResultsPlasma concentrations of palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) and stearoylethanolamide (SEA) increased after 30 min in the unpleasant ambiance, while they decreased in the pleasant ambiance. Changes in ECs and their NAE congeners correlated with mood states, such as happiness and fatigue, but in the pleasant ambiance without alcohol only. ECs and their NAE congeners were correlated with serum free fatty acids and cortisol.ConclusionThis is the first human study to demonstrate that plasma NAEs are responsive to an unpleasant meal ambiance. Furthermore, associations between mood states and ECs and their NAE congeners were observed.

Trial Registration

Clinicaltrials.gov {"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT01426022","term_id":"NCT01426022"}}NCT01426022     

公立医院固定资产非效率投资度量实证分析 ——以B地区公立医院为例

基于前期构建的度量理论模型,在参考国外文献基础上结合我国公立医院的实际情况,对理论模型中的变量进行了选择和定义,然后采用多元回归分析构建了B地区公立医院最优投资支出预测函数,并对B地区公立医院的是否出现非效率投资行为进行了判断和度量。     

The Biphasic Effects of Moderate Alcohol Consumption with a Meal on Ambiance-Induced Mood and Autonomic Nervous System Balance: A Randomized Crossover Trial

Background

The pre-drinking mood state has been indicated to be an important factor in the mood effects of alcohol. However, for moderate alcohol consumption there are no controlled studies showing this association. Also, the mood effects of consuming alcohol combined with food are largely unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of moderate alcohol combined with a meal on ambiance-induced mood states. Furthermore effects on autonomic nervous system activity were measured to explore physiological mechanisms that may be involved in changes of mood state.

Methods

In a crossover design 28 women (age 18–45 y, BMI 18.5–27 kg/m²) were randomly allocated to 4 conditions in which they received 3 glasses of sparkling white wine (30 g alcohol) or alcohol-free sparkling white wine while having dinner in a room with either a pleasant or unpleasant created ambiance. Subjects filled out questionnaires (B-BAES, POMS and postprandial wellness questionnaire) at different times. Skin conductance and heart rate variability were measured continuously.

Results

Moderate alcohol consumption increased happiness scores in the unpleasant, but not in the pleasant ambiance. Alcohol consumption increased happiness and stimulation feelings within 1 hour and increased sedative feelings and sleepiness for 2.5 hour. Skin conductance was increased after alcohol within 1 hour and was related to happiness and stimulation scores. Heart rate variability was decreased after alcohol for 2 hours and was related to mental alertness.

Conclusion

Mood inductions and autonomic nervous system parameters may be useful to evaluate mood changes by nutritional interventions. Moderate alcohol consumption elevates happiness scores in an unpleasant ambiance. However, drinking alcohol during a pleasant mood results in an equally positive mood state.

Trial Registration

Clinicaltrials.gov {"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT01426022","term_id":"NCT01426022"}}NCT01426022.     

Public smog knowledge,risk perception,and intention to reduce car use: Evidence from China

ABSTRACT

Smog pollution has received widely attention in recent years due to its negative effects. There is consensus that the motor vehicle exhaust emission is one of the sources of smog pollution and reduced private car use would significantly improve the air quality and alleviate the smog pollution problem. In this research, we aim to investigate how public smog knowledge and risk perception (physical health risk perception and mental health risk perception) affect public attitude and intention to reduce car use. A questionnaire survey of 334 randomly sampled respondents was designed to test these relationships. The results show that public smog knowledge is positively and significantly related to physical health risk perception, mental health risk perception, attitude and intention to reduce car use. Public smog knowledge has the largest impact on intention to reduce car use. Furthermore, physical health risk perception and mental health risk perception are positively and significantly associated with attitude and intention to reduce car use. In addition, the results also indicated that public smog knowledge is at a low level. Based on the results, implications and suggestions for future research were discussed.     

No Evidence for Genome-Wide Interactions on Plasma Fibrinogen by Smoking,Alcohol Consumption and Body Mass Index: Results from Meta-Analyses of 80,607 Subjects

Plasma fibrinogen is an acute phase protein playing an important role in the blood coagulation cascade having strong associations with smoking, alcohol consumption and body mass index (BMI). Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified a variety of gene regions associated with elevated plasma fibrinogen concentrations. However, little is yet known about how associations between environmental factors and fibrinogen might be modified by genetic variation. Therefore, we conducted large-scale meta-analyses of genome-wide interaction studies to identify possible interactions of genetic variants and smoking status, alcohol consumption or BMI on fibrinogen concentration. The present study included 80,607 subjects of European ancestry from 22 studies. Genome-wide interaction analyses were performed separately in each study for about 2.6 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across the 22 autosomal chromosomes. For each SNP and risk factor, we performed a linear regression under an additive genetic model including an interaction term between SNP and risk factor. Interaction estimates were meta-analysed using a fixed-effects model. No genome-wide significant interaction with smoking status, alcohol consumption or BMI was observed in the meta-analyses. The most suggestive interaction was found for smoking and rs10519203, located in the LOC123688 region on chromosome 15, with a p value of 6.2×10⁻⁸. This large genome-wide interaction study including 80,607 participants found no strong evidence of interaction between genetic variants and smoking status, alcohol consumption or BMI on fibrinogen concentrations. Further studies are needed to yield deeper insight in the interplay between environmental factors and gene variants on the regulation of fibrinogen concentrations.     

自由现金流量与公立医院过度投资关系研究 ——以B地区公立医院为例

基于自由现金流量假说理论,结合公立医院所面临的融资、盈余分配制度、医疗费用的支付方式以及公立医院面临的市场风险等,提出自由现金流量对公立医院过度投资影响的理论假设;然后,以固定资产过度投资为因变量,自由现金流量以及医院等级等为自变量,并控制医院的规模、现金存量以及上期资本支出因素,构建多元回归模型,以B地区公立医院的实际数据对研究假设进行实证检验。研究结果表明：自由现金流量是公立医院过度投资的重要诱因之一,且三级医院比二级医院更容易发生自由现金流量过度投资。     

The Interplay of Public Intervention and Private Choices in Determining the Outcome of Vaccination Programmes

After a long period of stagnation, traditionally explained by the voluntary nature of the programme, a considerable increase in routine measles vaccine uptake has been recently observed in Italy after a set of public interventions aiming to promote MMR immunization, whilst retaining its voluntary aspect. To account for this take-off in coverage we propose a simple SIR transmission model with vaccination choice, where, unlike similar works, vaccinating behaviour spreads not only through the diffusion of “private” information spontaneously circulating among parents of children to be vaccinated, which we call imitation, but also through public information communicated by the public health authorities. We show that public intervention has a stabilising role which is able to reduce the strength of imitation-induced oscillations, to allow disease elimination, and to even make the disease-free equilibrium where everyone is vaccinated globally attractive. The available Italian data are used to evaluate the main behavioural parameters, showing that the proposed model seems to provide a much more plausible behavioural explanation of the observed take-off of uptake of vaccine against measles than models based on pure imitation alone.     

Evaluation of a Public Health Intervention to Lower Mercury Exposure from Fish Consumption in Bermuda

Objectives

To assess the efficacy of a public health intervention to reduce blood mercury (Hg) concentration levels in pregnant Bermudian women.

Methods

In 2003, we conducted a study entitled “Prenatal exposure of the Bermudian Population to Environmental Contaminants” which provided Bermuda’s first baseline data on prenatal exposure to several environmental contaminants, including Hg. The mean Hg concentration from 42 healthy newborns measured in umbilical cord blood was 41.3 nmol/L, ranging from 5–160 nmol/L. This concentration was much higher than expected, being approximately 8 times the general levels found in Canada and the U.S. Furthermore, we estimated that 85% of total Hg measured was in the form of methylmercury (MeHg), indicating that seafood consumption was the primary source of Hg exposure during pregnancy in Bermuda. Locally sourced seafood was identified as the most significant possible contributory source of Hg exposure. In 2005 the authors began a complementary research programme to study the levels of Hg in local commercial fish species. Coming out of this research were specific local fish consumption guidelines issued by the Department of Health advising pregnant women to avoid those local fish species found to be high in Hg while still encouraging consumption of fish species having lower Hg levels.

Results

In 2010, under another research initiative, we returned to Bermuda to carry out another evaluation of Hg in human blood. Hg was measured in the blood of 49 pregnant women. The arithmetic mean Hg blood concentration was 6.6 nmol/L and the geometric mean 4.2 nmol/L. The maximum concentration found was 24 nmol/L.

Conclusions

Hg exposure of Bermudian pregnant women has dropped significantly by a factor of around 5 since the foetal cord blood study in 2003.     

Obesity, Public Health, and the Consumption of Animal Products

Partly in response to rising rates of obesity, many governments have published healthy eating advice. Focusing on health advice related to the consumption of animal products (APs), I argue that the individualistic paradigm that prevails must be replaced by a radically new approach that emphasizes the duty of all human beings to restrict their negative “Global Health Impacts” (GHIs). If they take human rights seriously, many governments from nations with relatively large negative GHIs—including the Australian example provided here—must develop strategies to reduce their citizens’ negative GHIs. As the negative GHIs associated with the consumption of many APs are excessive, it is my view that many governments ought to adopt a qualified ban on the consumption of APs.     

The Willingness to Pay for Vaccination against Tick-Borne Encephalitis and Implications for Public Health Policy: Evidence from Sweden

The increasing incidence of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) in Sweden and several other European countries has sparked a discussion about the need for a public vaccination strategy. However, TBE vaccination coverage is incomplete and there is little knowledge about the factors influencing vaccination behavior. Based on a survey of 1,500 randomly selected respondents in Sweden, we estimate vaccination coverage in areas with different TBE risk levels and analyze the role of vaccine price and other factors influencing the demand for vaccination. First, we find that the average rate of TBE vaccination in Sweden is 33% in TBE risk areas and 18% elsewhere. Income, age and risk-related factors such as incidence of TBE in the area of residence, frequency of visits to areas with TBE risk, and experience with tick bites are positively associated with demand for TBE vaccine. Next, using contingent valuation methodology, we estimate the willingness to pay for TBE vaccination among the unvaccinated respondents and the effect of a possible subsidy. Among the unvaccinated respondents in TBE risk areas, we estimate the mean willingness to pay for the recommended three doses of TBE vaccine to be 465 SEK (approximately 46 euros or 40% of the current market price). We project that a subsidy making TBE vaccines free of charge could increase the vaccination rate in TBE risk areas to around 78%, with a larger effect on low-income households, whose current vaccination rate is only 15% in risk areas. However, price is not the only factor affecting demand. We find significant effects on vaccination behavior associated with trust in vaccine recommendations, perceptions about tick bite-related health risks and knowledge about ticks and tick-borne diseases. Hence, increasing knowledge and trust, as well as ease of access to vaccinations, can also be important measures for public health agencies that want to increase the vaccination rate.     

Examining the Impact of a Public Health Message on Fish Consumption in Bermuda

Background

In 2003 mean cord blood mercury concentrations in pregnant Bermudian women exceeded levels associated with adverse health outcomes in children. The principal mercury source was local fish species. Public health messages were developed suggesting pregnant women reduce consumption of fish species with higher mercury concentrations (e.g. swordfish), substituting species containing lower mercury concentrations, and elevated omega-3 fatty acids (e.g. anchovies). Recent evidence indicates mercury concentrations in Bermuda’s pregnant women have fallen five- fold.

Objectives

Assess whether changes in women’s fish eating patterns during pregnancy are consistent with the public health messaging. Determine who is making changes to their diet during pregnancy and why.

Methods

Mixed methods study with a cross-sectional survey of 121 pregnant women, including 13 opened-ended interviews. Health system, social vulnerability, public health messaging, and socio-demographic variables were characterized and related to changes in fish consumption during pregnancy. Qualitative data were coded according to nutritional advice messages, comprehension of communication strategies, and sources of information.

Results

95% of women surveyed encountered recommendations about fish consumption during pregnancy. 75% reported modifying fish eating behaviors because of recommendations. Principal sources of information about fish consumption in pregnancy were health care providers and the Internet. 71% of women reported reducing consumption of large fish species with greater mercury levels, but 60% reported reduced consumption of smaller, low mercury fish. No participant mentioned hearing about the benefits of fish consumption. More frequent exposure to public health messages during pregnancy was associated with lower reported consumption. Bermudian born women were less likely to reduce consumption of large fish species during pregnancy.

Conclusions

In Bermuda, public health messages advocating reduced consumption of larger, higher mercury-containing fish species appear effective, but masked the nutritional value message of small fish species, with low mercury concentration. Adjustment is needed to better balance the risk communication.     

Managing Disease Risks from Trade: Strategic Behavior with Many Choices and Price Effects

An individual’s infectious disease risks, and hence the individual’s incentives for risk mitigation, may be influenced by others’ risk management choices. If so, then there will be strategic interactions among individuals, whereby each makes his or her own risk management decisions based, at least in part, on the expected decisions of others. Prior work has shown that multiple equilibria could arise in this setting, with one equilibrium being a coordination failure in which individuals make too few investments in protection. However, these results are largely based on simplified models involving a single management choice and fixed prices that may influence risk management incentives. Relaxing these assumptions, we find strategic interactions influence, and are influenced by, choices involving multiple management options and market price effects. In particular, we find these features can reduce or eliminate concerns about multiple equilibria and coordination failure. This has important policy implications relative to simpler models.