An Evolutionary Scenario For The Origin Of Pentaradial Echinoderms—Implications From The Hydraulic Principles Of Form Determination

The early evolutionary history of echinoderms was reconstructed on the basis of structural-functional considerations and application of the quasi-engineering approach of ‘Konstruktions-Morphologie’. According to the presented evolutionary scenario, a bilaterally symmetrical ancestor, such as an enteropneust-like organism, became gradually modified into a pentaradial echinoderm by passing through an intermediate pterobranch-like stage. The arms of a pentaradial echinoderm are identified as hydraulic outgrowths from the central coelomic cavity of the bilateral ancestor which developed due to a shortening of the body in length but widening in the diameter. The resulting pentaradial symmetry is a consequence of mechanical laws that dictate minimal contact surface areas among hydraulic pneumatic entities. These developed in the coelomic cavity (metacoel) in the bilaterally symmetrical ancestor, when from the already U-shaped mesentery with the intestinal tract two additional U-shaped bows developed directly or subsequently. During the subsequent development tensile chords of the mesentery ‘sewed’ the gut with the body wall first in three and secondly in five ‘seams’. During the direct development five ‘seams’ between tensile chords and body wall developed straightly. These internal tensile chords subdivide the body coelom into five hydraulic subsystems (‘pneus’), which eventually arrange in a pentaradial pattern. The body could then enlarge only between the tensile chords, which means that five hydraulic bulges developed. These bulges initially supported the tentacles and finally each of them enclosed the tentacle until only the feather-like appendages of the tentacles projected over the surface. The tentacles with their feathers were transformedinto the ambulacral system, and the bulges become the arms. These morphological transformations were accompanied and partly determined by specific histological modifications, such as the development of mutable connective tissues and skeletal elements that fused to ossicles and provided shape stabilization in form of a calcareous skeleton in the body wall. The organism resulted was an ancestral echinoderm (‘Ur-Echinoderm’) with an enlarged metacoel, stabilized by hydraulic pressure working againsta capsule of mutable connective tissue, skeletal elements and longitudinal muscles. In regard to these reconstructions, the body structure of echinoderms can be understood as a hydraulic skeletal capsule.     

An Improved Method for The Preparation Of The Phosphoramidites Of Modified 2′-Deoxynucleotides: Incorporation Of 8-Oxo-2′-Deoxy-7H-Guanosine Into Synthetic Oligomers

Abstract

3′ -O-(Diisopropylamino-2-cyanoethoxyphosphinyl)-5′ -0-(4, 4′ -dimethoxytrityl)-N²-isobutyryl-8-oxo-2′-deoxy-7H-guanosine was synthesized and used for the introduction of an 8?0×0?2′-deoxy-7H-guanosine residue into a DNA oligomer by means of automated synthesis. A modification of the preparation of the phosphoramidite markedly improves the coupling efficiency in the oligomer synthesis in this and several other cases that were tested.     

The American genera of Malvaceae—II

The genera of Malvaceae that occur in North, Central, and South America (including the Caribbean) are enumerated, described, and distinguished, using an artificial key. The usual taxonomic information (bibliographic citations, synonyms, type species, etc.) is presented and the generic names are indexed. The literature is reviewed and summarized for each genus, presenting such information (where appropriate) as the etymology of the name, number of species, infrageneric classification, distribution, chromosome numbers, economic importance, distinguishing features, and reference to representative illustrations. Where useful, the taxonomic history of the genus is summarized. A listing of unresolved taxonomic problems in the family is presented to highlight needs for future study. A detailed bibliography is included. One new combination is made:Palaua sandemanii (Sandwith) Fryxell, based on the PeruvianMalvastrum sandemanii Sandwith.

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Resumen  Los géneros de la familia Malvaceae que se encuentran en Norte América, Centroamérica, y Sudamérica (incluyendo Las Antillas) se enumeran, describen, y distinguen por medio de una clave artificial. Se presentan informaciones tales como citas bibliográficas, sinonimías, y especies tipos para cada género, y se presenta un índice de los nombres, genéricos. Para cada género del que existe información, se presentan datos derivados de la literatura sobre su etimología, número de especies, clasificación infragenérica, distribución geográfica, números cromosómicos, importancia económica, características destacables, y referencias de ilustraciones representativas. Cuando se considera necesario, se presenta la historia taxonómica del género. Se presenta un lista de aquellos problemas taxonómicos no resueltos en la familia y se indican los estudios necesarios para el futuro. Se acompanya una bibliografía detallada. Se hace una combinación nueva:Palaua sandemanii (Sandwith) Fryxell, basada enMalvastrum sandemanii Sandwith.

     

Climate,Acculturation, And Costume A History Of Women’S Clothing Among The Indians Of The Southern Plains

Abstract

This paper accepts Clark Wissler’s dictum, offered as long ago as 1915, in his pioneer study of Plains Indian clothing, that for such perishable objects as costume “real historic data is usually available.” Applying a combination of evidence provided by dated, first-hand, written observations, early drawings and later photographs, as well as selected well documented specimens preserved in museum collections to a study of historic Southern Plains Indian women’s body costume one finds that south of the northern limit of 180 frost-free days the prevailing women’s attire prior to the mid-19th century was a skin skirt and a poncho of the same material. In warm weather the poncho was often omitted sometimes exposing a wearer’s profusely painted or tattooed mammae. By the 1820s some women of affluent families made their garments of trade cloth. By the 1850s a long, trade cloth dress, with kimono sleeves and inset gores was becoming fashionable. This garment, in turn, was superceded among women of status by a three piece skin dress after buckskin became relatively scarce. The two piece skin dress which Wissler proposed as the “plains style” was never typical of the tribes of the Southern Plains. Rather the evidence argues against culture area uniformity in women’s clothing, while suggesting that climate and acculturation resulting from white contact strongly influenced a variety of dress styles among the women of the plains tribes. Indeed the body garments worn by women on the Southern Plains prior to 1850 strikingly resemble those depicted on classic figurines from Vera Cruz, Mexico, while they differed totally from garments worn by women of Northern Plains tribes during early historic times.     

Presidential Address—Some Reflections On The Nature Of Species

Background: Variation in the distribution and abundance of woody plants as consequence of disturbances such as fire may be explained by lineage age.

Aims: We tested whether lowland tropical tree lineages that colonise secondary forests are more late-diverging than clades from old-growth forests, and whether tree phylogenetic beta diversity from old-growth to secondary forests is higher in burned than non-burned secondary forests.

Methods: We sampled tree communities in old-growth forests and in secondary forests with distinct disturbance histories (burned and unburned). We calculated mean family age in each plot, and tested for differences among forest types using ANOVA. A phylogenetic fuzzy-weighting procedure was employed to generate a matrix describing the abundance of tree clades per plot, which was then analysed using a principal coordinate analysis.

Results: Most clades found in old-growth forests were underrepresented in secondary forests, which have been heavily colonised by a single species from a young lineage that is not found in old-growth forests. Phylogenetic beta diversity was higher between unburned secondary forests and old-growth forests than between burned secondary forests and old-growth forests.

Conclusions: The capacity of Neotropical trees to colonise secondary forests and persist after fire disturbance may be related to the age of distinct lineages.     

Why American Marine Stations?:The Teaching Argument

SYNOPSIS: Traditionally, historians have stressed the influenceof European laboratories on the development of American marinestations. While there is some justification for this interpretation,more attention must be directed at the original teaching imperativefor marine studies. Several marine stations emerged in the 1870swith no direct influence from Europe and with a complete commitmentto the education of secondary school teachers. Later in thecentury and early in the twentieth century this same patternwas repeated at several locations on both the east coast andthe west coast. All of these institutions were designed to presenta new pedagogical approach for biology in the United States.Originally as adjuncts to natural history museums and societiesand then as important innovations to teach laboratory methodsin American colleges and universities, marine biology stationsdeveloped research options only secondary to their primary educationalorientation.     

The challenge of understanding the Asian‐American experience

Roger Daniels, ASIAN AMERICA: CHINESE AND JAPANESE IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1850, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1988, 344 pp., $24.95 (hardback).

Harriet Duleep, THE ECONOMIC STATUS OF AMERICANS OF ASIAN DESCENT: AN EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION, Washington DC: US Commission on Civil Rights Clearinghouse Publication 95, October 1988.

James A. Freeman, HEARTS OF SORROW: VIETNAMESE‐AMERICAN LIVES, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1989, 427 pp., $29.50 (hard cover)     

The Landscape Of Alpha Fetoprotein In Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Where Are We?

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common primary liver cancer and has been acknowledged as a leading cause of death among cirrhosis patients. Difficulties in early diagnosis and heterogeneity are obstacles to effective treatment, especially for advanced HCC. Liver transplantation (LT) is considered the best therapy for HCC. Although many biomarkers are being proposed, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), which was identified over 60 years ago, remains the most utilized. Recently, much hope has been placed in the immunogenicity of AFP to develop novel therapies, such as AFP vaccines and AFP-specific adoptive T-cell transfer (ACT). This review summarizes the performance of AFP as a biomarker for HCC diagnosis and prognosis, as well as its correlation with molecular classes. In addition, the role of AFP in LT is also described. Finally, we highlight the mechanism and application prospects of two immune therapies (AFP vaccine and ACT) for HCC. In general, our review points out the prevalence of AFP in HCC, accompanied by some controversies and novel directions for future research.     

Translation And Cultural Adaptation Of A Mental Health Outcome Measure: The Basis-R©

Culturally and linguistically appropriate outcome measures are needed to address the needs of Latino consumers of mental health services. The revised Behavior and Symptom Identification Scale (BASIS-R(c)) is an English-language consumer self-report measure designed to assess outcome of behavioral health or substance abuse treatment. This study sought to develop a culturally and linguistically appropriate version of the BASIS-R(c) for Spanish-speaking Latinos. To achieve this goal, the English instrument was translated and adapted into Spanish by an international bilingual committee and tested in four focus groups and 45 cognitive interviews with Puerto Ricans, Dominicans, and Mexicans living in the United States and Puerto Rico. Focus groups and cognitive interviews provided qualitative and quantitative information about the instrument's content and format, and respondents' understanding of the instructions, questionnaire items, time frame, and response options. Respondents' ratings of the clarity and importance of each item were also obtained. Analyses of focus group and cognitive interview data identified items that were confusing or difficult for participants. Findings suggest that the Spanish version of the BASIS-R(c) incorporated the cultural diversity of the three groups of Latinos in this study without compromising the validity of the English version of the BASIS.     

Of lice and men: The return of the ’comparative parasitology‘ debate

The question of whether or not parasite phylogeny provides information about host relationships (‘comparative parasitology’) reached a peak in 1957 in a vigorous debate between Gunther Timmermann and Ernst Mayr. Timmermann argued that parasites were associated with their hosts by descent and that this produced congruent host and parasite phylogenies. In contrast, Mayr argued that parasites were often associated by colonization and that this led to incongruence between host and parasite phylogenies. To test these differing views. Adrian Paterson, Russell Gray and Graham Wallis derived a procellaniform phylogeny. This tree is here compared with Timmermann's tree based on the relationships of feather lice. Timmermann's tree is more similar to the seabird phylogeny than would be expected by chance. Thus, support is found for the ‘comparative parasitology’ approach.     

The Use Of Lead Tetraacetate,Benzidine, O-Dianisidine and A “Film Test” In Investigating The Periodic-Acid-Schiff Technic

In order to obtain a better understanding of the “periodic-acid-Schiff” reaction, also known as the “periodic-acid fuchsin-sulfurous-acid” reaction, three types of investigations were carried out

1) The Schiff reagent was replaced by other aldehyde reagents: benzidine or o-dianisidine. There was no significant change in the histological distribution and intensity of the reactions occurring after periodic acid oxidation.

2) Periodic acid was replaced by another oxidizing agent: lead tetraacetate (dissolved in acetic acid). There was no significant change in the histological distribution of the reactions with the Schiff reagent, but some change in their intensity. It was concluded that 1,2-glycols and a-amino alcohols play the main role in the reactions with both oxidants. The presence of α-hydroxy acids in some types of mucous cells is suggested by the results with lead tetraacetate.

Incidently, glycogen and starch are not sufficiently oxidized by lead tetraacetate (in acetic acid) at room temperature to give positive reactions with the Schiff reagent, while cellulose and other periodic-acid-Schiff reactive substances are.

3) The staining of films of presumed reactive substances with the periodic-acid-Schiff technic C O the intense reactivity of many polysaccharides, mucopolysaccharides and mucoproteins, but not of ordinary proteins. (Hyaluronic and chondroitin sulfuric acid are, however, not reactive in vitro).

In conclusion, the periodic-acid-Schiff technic consists of an oxidation of 1,2-glycols and a-amino alcohols to produce aldehyde groups, which are then stained by the Schiff reagent. The “film test” reveals that these radicals are present in certain polysaccharides, mucopolysaccharides and mucoproteins.