Structure of Amylase Genes in Populations of Pacific Cupped Oyster (Crassostrea gigas): Tissue Expression and Allelic Polymorphism

Using the previously determined complementary DNA Sequence of Crassostrea gigas amylase (Y08370), we designed several oligonucleotide primers and used them with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology to characterize oyster amylase gene sequences. Two genes encoding 2 different amylases were characterized and sequenced. The 2 genes are similarly organized with 8 exons and 7 introns. Intron insertions are found at the same location in the 2 genes. Sizes and nucleotide sequences are different for the different introns inside each gene and different for the corresponding introns in the 2 genes. Comparing the 2 genes, around 10% of the nucleotides are different along the exons, and comparing the 2 deduced protein sequences, a mean value of 10.4% of amino acids are changed. Genes A and B encode mature proteins of, respectively, 500 and 499 amino acids, which present 94% similarity. A microsatellite (TC₃₇) that constitutes the largest part of intron 4 of gene A has been used as a polymorphic marker. A method consisting of a PCR step followed by EcoRI digestion of the obtained fragments was used to observe polymorphism in these 2 genes. Six and 4 alleles for genes A and B, respectively, have been sequenced, leading to a maximum of 2.9% base change. The 2 genes are ubiquitously expressed in the different digestive tissues with quantitative differences. Gene A is strongly expressed in the digestive gland and at a lower level in stomach, while gene B is preferentially expressed in the labial palps. The microsatellite repeat was used in the analysis of 4 populations of Crassostrea gigas from the French Atlantic coast. A high level of polymorphism observed with 30 different alleles of gene A inside the populations should allow their characterization using the mean value of the microsatellite allelic distribution. These populations showed a low level of differentiation (F _st between 0 and 0.011); however, the population of Bonne Anse appeared to be distinguished from the other populations.     

Primary Structure of Myostracal Prism Soluble Protein (MPSP) in Oyster Shell, Crassostrea gigas

Soluble protein (MPSP, myostracal prism soluble protein) obtained from myostracum in oyster shell (Crassostrea gigas) was characterized using biochemical and molecular biological techniques. From an analysis of secondary protein structure, it was shown that β-structure was predominant in MPSP. And via in vitro assays, the relation of MPSP to biomineral phase and morphology was studied. SDS-PAGE revealed one major protein band of 20 kDa. An amino acid sequence of 160 amino acids was deduced for myostracum by characterization of the complementary DNA encoding the protein. The deduced protein was composed of a high proportion of Gly and Asp, typifying a calcium-binding protein for shell formation, and a relatively high proportion of Val, Ala and Ile, typifying an adhesive protein. In contrast to prevailing expectations, (Gly–Asp)n-type sequence motifs exist in MPSP, demanding a revision of previous theories of protein–mineral interactions. The cDNA sequence of myostracum is elucidated for the first time.     

Comparative Methylome Analysis Reveals Epigenetic Signatures Associated with Growth and Shell Color in the Pacific Oyster,Crassostrea gigas

Marine Biotechnology - Fast growth is one of the most important breeding goals for all economic species such as the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), an aquaculture mollusk with top global...     

Identification of Conserved and Novel MicroRNAs in the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas by Deep Sequencing

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in regulatory processes in various organisms. To date many studies have been performed in the investigation of miRNAs of numerous bilaterians, but limited numbers of miRNAs have been identified in the few species belonging to the clade Lophotrochozoa. In the current study, deep sequencing was conducted to identify the miRNAs of Crassostrea gigas (Lophotrochozoa) at a genomic scale, using 21 libraries that included different developmental stages and adult organs. A total of 100 hairpin precursor loci were predicted to encode miRNAs. Of these, 19 precursors (pre-miRNA) were novel in the oyster. As many as 53 (53%) miRNAs were distributed in clusters and 49 (49%) precursors were intragenic, which suggests two important biogenetic sources of miRNAs. Different developmental stages were characterized with specific miRNA expression patterns that highlighted regulatory variation along a temporal axis. Conserved miRNAs were expressed universally throughout different stages and organs, whereas novel miRNAs tended to be more specific and may be related to the determination of the novel body plan. Furthermore, we developed an index named the miRNA profile age index (miRPAI) to integrate the evolutionary age and expression levels of miRNAs during a particular developmental stage. We found that the swimming stages were characterized by the youngest miRPAIs. Indeed, the large-scale expression of novel miRNAs indicated the importance of these stages during development, particularly from organogenetic and evolutionary perspectives. Some potentially important miRNAs were identified for further study through significant changes between expression patterns in different developmental events, such as metamorphosis. This study broadened the knowledge of miRNAs in animals and indicated the presence of sophisticated miRNA regulatory networks related to the biological processes in lophotrochozoans.     

Population demography and genetic characteristics of the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas in Japan

The Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas is a commercially important bivalve distributed along the northwest Pacific coast. Here C. gigas in Japan was investigated using mtDNA and microsatellite markers to elucidate its genetic structure and phylogeny. On the basis of mtDNA all populations showed high genetic diversity with limited genetic differentiation among populations. The pattern of MtDNA diversity suggested that C. gigas had experienced population expansion about 112 Kya, prior to the last glacial maximum (LGM), which accorded well with other marine organisms. For microsatellites, a Bayesian-based assignment test demonstrated that C. gigas is nearly panmictic. However, on the basis of estimates of F_ST, Kumano populations differed significantly from other populations, a recent occurrence based on low R_ST. Irrespective of geographical distance, genetic similarity was observed in the main aquaculture regions with large-scale transportation of cultured spat. Unlike in the Yellow Sea, a genetic bottleneck was not detected in Japanese populations. These results imply, contrary to the prevailing view, that C. gigas in Japan was demographically stable during the LGM. Gene flow by larval dispersal seems to be regionally restricted to localities of congenital areas by ocean currents, while genetic homogenization by cultivated oysters might have occurred in aquaculture areas.     

Effects of Dietary Cystine and Tyrosine Supplementation on Melanin Synthesis in the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas)

Marine Biotechnology - Melanogenesis is a multistep process to produce melanin for dark pigmentation in skin coloration. Previous studies in vertebrates demonstrated that cystine and tyrosine amino...     

A Centromeric Satellite Sequence in the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas Thunberg) Identified by Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization

A highly repetitive satellite sequence was previously identified in the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas Thunberg. The sequence has 168 bp per unit, present in tandem repeats, and accounts for 1% to 4% of the genome. We studied the chromosomal location of this satellite sequence by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). A probe was made by polymerase chain reaction and incorporation of digoxigenin-11-dUTP. Hybridization was detected with fluorescein-labeled antidigoxigenin antibodies. FISH signals were located at centromeric regions of 7 pairs of the Pacific oyster chromosomes. No interstitial site was found. Signals were strong and consistent on chromosomes 1, 2, 4, and 7, but weak or variable on chromosomes 5, 8, and 10. No signal was observed on chromosomes 3, 6, and 9. Our results showed that this sequence is clearly a centromeric satellite, disputing its previous assignment to the telomeric and submetacentric regions of 2 chromosomes. No signal was detected in the American oyster (Crassostrea virginica Gmelin). Received February 2, 2001; accepted May 24, 2001     

Genetic Variation and Breeding Signature in Mass Selection Lines of the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) Assessed by SNP Markers

In breeding industries, a challenging problem is how to keep genetic diversity over generations. To investigate genetic variation and identify breeding signatures in mass selected lines of Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas), three sixth-generation selected lines and four wild populations were assessed using 103 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. The genetic diversity data indicated that the selected lines exhibited a significant reduction in the observed heterozygosity and observed number of alleles per locus compared with the wild populations (P≤0.05), indicating the selected lines tended to lose genetic diversity contrasted with the wild populations. The unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) analysis showed that the wild populations and selected lines were not separated into two groups. Using four outlier tests, a total of 17 loci were found under selection at two levels. The global outlier detection suggested that 4 common outlier loci were subject to selection using both the hierarchical island model and Bayesian likelihood approaches. At regional level, 3 SNPs were detected as outlier using at least two outlier tests and one outlier SNP (CgSNP309) was overlapped in the two wild-selected population comparisons. The candidate outlier SNPs provide valuable resources for future association studies in C. gigas.     

Xenobiotic biotransformation in the Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas)

1. Oyster visceral mass and gill tissues possessed measurable flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO) activity. 2. FMO activity was confirmed in visceral mass microsomes by oxygen uptake experiments utilizing various nitrogen and sulfur-containing chemicals along with measurement of N,N-dimethylaniline (DMA) N-oxidase and methimazole oxidation activities. DMA N-oxidase and methimazole oxidation activities also were present in gill microsomes. 3. Excluding oyster gill methimazole oxidation, there were no consistent seasonal differences in FMO activity in oyster gill or visceral mass microsomes. 4. Although lacking spectral evidence for cytochrome P-450, a peak at 418 nm was observed along with NADPH-cytochrome c reductase activity in visceral mass and gill microsomes suggesting the presence of a denatured cytochrome P-450 system. 5. NADPH-independent benzo(a)pyrene hydroxylase (BPH) activity was observed in both oyster visceral mass and gill microsomes suggesting a co-oxidation pathway possibly involving a one electron transfer of oxygen from a lipid hydroperoxide.     

Specific Detection of Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas) Larvae in Plankton Samples Using Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction

Management of sustainable Pacific oyster fisheries would be assisted by an early, rapid, and accurate means of detecting their planktonic larvae. Reported here is an approach, based on polymerase chain reaction (PCR), for the detection of Pacific oyster larvae in plankton samples. Species-specific primers were designed by comparing partial mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) sequences from Crassostrea gigas, with other members of the family Ostreidae including those of Crassostrea angulata. Assay specificity was empirically validated through screening DNA samples obtained from several species of oysters. The assay was specific as only C. gigas samples returned PCR-positive results. A nested PCR approach could consistently detect 5 or more D-hinge-stage larvae spiked into a background of about 146 mg of plankton. The assay does not require prior sorting of larvae. We conclude that the assay could be used to screen environmental and ballast water samples, although further specificity testing against local bivalve species is recommended in new locations.     

太平洋牡蛎养殖与野生群体遗传变异的微卫星研究

应用微卫星标记技术研究5个中国太平洋牡蛎养殖群体和2个日本太平洋牡蛎野生群体的遗传变异。研究中所使用的7个微卫星位点在养殖和野生群体中都显示出了高多态性,平均等位基因数为19.1～29.9,平均期待杂合度为0.916～0.958。养殖群体和野生群体的平均等位基因丰度及观察杂合度没有显著性差异。遗传分化系数及等位基因杂合度分析显示所有的群体间都有显著性差异。构建的NJ树中,7个群体聚为3支,养殖群体和野生群体可以清楚地分开,在养殖群体中又分为南北两支。分配检验中,97%～100%的正确率证明了微卫星标记在群体识别分析中的可行性。本研究结果对太平洋牡蛎管理模式的设计和选择育种具有重要意义。     

太平洋牡蛎i型溶菌酶基因的克隆与重组高效表达

在双壳类软体动物牡蛎体内,溶菌酶(Lysozyme)在实现宿主免疫防御,破坏和消除侵入体内的病原中发挥着重要的作用.根据GenBank已有的太平洋牡蛎溶菌酶的全长cDNA序列(GenBank:AB179775),通过RT-PCR技术,从太平洋牡蛎(Crassostrea gigas)中克隆得到溶菌酶(简称为CgLys)基因的开放阅读框(open reading frame,ORF)序列.生物信息软件分析表明,其ORF为414 bp,编码137个氨基酸(aa),前20个aa为信号肽,成熟肽由117个aa组成,其分子量为13.2 kD.通过构建分子系统发育树对其同源性进行分析比较,初步推断该CgLys属于i型溶菌酶.将该CgLys基因的成熟肽亚克隆进原核表达载体pET-32a(+)中,构建重组质粒pET32a(+)-CgLys,再转化至大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)pLysS.该基因工程菌经IPTG诱导发酵后,成功高效地表达了重组CgLys蛋白,其分子质量约为18 kD.该重组CgLya蛋白主要存在于细菌裂解液的上清液中,即以可溶性蛋白形式存在.上述结果将显著简化后续的蛋白纯化过程,为今后扩大规模生产牡蛎溶菌酶提供参考.     

Histological Characterization and Glucose Incorporation into Glycogen of the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas Storage Cells

In order to investigate glycogen metabolism in the oyster Crassostrea gigas, the distribution of storage cells in the whole animal was studied before histological and biochemical characterization. These cells were found mainly in the labial palps, the mantle, and gonadal area and also in gills and the digestive area. Storage cells from palps, mantle, and gonad presented the same morphological features and the same seasonal glycogen variations. Storage cells were isolated from the labial palps and the mantle plus gonadal area of the oyster by enzymatic dispersion and centrifugation through discontinuous Percoll gradient. These cells have a modal density of 1.043 g/ml. An ultrastructural study confirmed that glycogen is present in the cytoplasm either as fine particles or sequestered within vesicles. Glucose incorporation into glycogen was evaluated in vitro using [U-¹⁴C]glucose: the incorporation in isolated cells increased linearly for at least 8 hours, was proportional to the cell concentration, and showed saturation kinetics with respect to the exogenous glucose concentration. Received March 18, 1999; accepted September 27, 1999.     

Survival,Growth and Reproduction of Cryopreserved Larvae from a Marine Invertebrate,the Pacific Oyster (Crassostrea gigas)

This study is the first demonstration of successful post-thawing development to reproduction stage of diploid cryopreserved larvae in an aquatic invertebrate. Survival, growth and reproductive performances were studied in juvenile and adult Pacific oysters grown from cryopreserved embryos. Cryopreservation was performed at three early stages: trochophore (13±2 hours post fertilization: hpf), early D-larvae (24±2 hpf) and late D-larvae (43±2 hpf). From the beginning (88 days) at the end of the ongrowing phase (195 days), no mortality was recorded and mean body weights did not differ between the thawed oysters and the control. At the end of the growing-out phase (982 days), survival of the oysters cryopreserved at 13±2 hpf and at 43±2 hpf was significantly higher (P<0.001) than those of the control (non cryopreserved larvae). Only the batches cryopreserved at 24±2 hpf showed lower survival than the control. Reproductive integrity of the mature oysters, formely cryopreserved at 13±2 hpf and 24±2 hpf, was estimated by the sperm movement and the larval development of their offspring in 13 crosses gamete pools (five males and five females in each pool). In all but two crosses out of 13 tested (P<0.001), development rates of the offspring were not significantly different between frozen and unfrozen parents. In all, the growth and reproductive performances of oysters formerly cryopreserved at larval stages are close to those of controls. Furthermore, these performances did not differ between the three initial larval stages of cryopreservation. The utility of larvae cryopreservation is discussed and compared with the cryopreservation of gametes as a technique for selection programs and shellfish cryobanking.     

牡蛎中糖蛋白成分的分离纯化及其性质研究

本文以青岛产牡蛎为原料,通过低温水提取工艺得到牡蛎糖蛋白粗提物,然后用凝胶柱层析(Sephacryls-100 HR)进行纯化,最后用高效液相色谱制备得到纯度较高的物质F22.由SDS-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳证实F22是纯度较高的单一组分;分子量为34.2 kDa;等电聚焦的结果显示等电点为5.5;红外色谱呈现出典型的糖的特征吸收峰;气相色谱分析结果显示F22的中性单糖是由葡萄糖这一种单糖组成的同多糖;β-消去反应表明F22的糖肽键应为N-型糖苷键.     

Sporulation of Minchinia sp. (Haplosporida, Haplosporidiidae) in the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg) from the Republic of Korea

SYNOPSIS. A haplosporidan parasite belonging to the genus Minchinia was found in 4 of 1,438 oysters, Crassostrea gigas , collected from the Republic of Korea. Multinucleated vegetative stages were present in the infected oysters. Spores found in one of these oysters were acid-fast and had operculate characteristics of the genus Minchinia .     

Reactive Oxygen Species in Unstimulated Hemocytes of the Pacific Oyster Crassostrea gigas: A Mitochondrial Involvement

The Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas is a sessile bivalve mollusc whose homeostasis relies, at least partially, upon cells circulating in hemolymph and referred to as hemocytes. Oyster’s hemocytes have been reported to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), even in absence of stimulation. Although ROS production in bivalve molluscs is mostly studied for its defence involvement, ROS may also be involved in cellular and tissue homeostasis. ROS sources have not yet been described in oyster hemocytes. The objective of the present work was to characterize the ROS sources in unstimulated hemocytes. We studied the effects of chemical inhibitors on the ROS production and the mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψ_m) of hemocytes. First, this work confirmed the specificity of JC-10 probe to measure Δψ_m in oyster hemocytes, without being affected by ΔpH, as reported in mammalian cells. Second, results show that ROS production in unstimulated hemocytes does not originate from cytoplasmic NADPH-oxidase, nitric oxide synthase or myeloperoxidase, but from mitochondria. In contrast to mammalian cells, incubation of hemocytes with rotenone (complex I inhibitor) had no effect on ROS production. Incubation with antimycin A (complex III inhibitor) resulted in a dose-dependent ROS production decrease while an over-production is usually reported in vertebrates. In hemocytes of C. gigas, the production of ROS seems similarly dependent on both Δψ_m and ΔpH. These findings point out differences between mammalian models and bivalve cells, which warrant further investigation about the fine characterization of the electron transfer chain and the respective involvement of mitochondrial complexes in ROS production in hemocytes of bivalve molluscs.