The involucrin genes of the white-fronted capuchin and cottontop tamarin: the platyrrhine middle region.

In all anthropoid species, the coding region of the involucrin gene contains a segment of short tandem repeats that were added sequentially, beginning in a common anthropoid ancestor. The involucrin coding region of each of two platyrrhine species, the white-fronted capuchin (Cebus albifrons) and the cottontop tamarin (Saguinus oedipus), has now been cloned and sequenced. These genes share with the genes of the catarrhines the repeats added in the common anthropoid lineage (the early region). After their divergence, the platyrrhines, like the catarrhines, continued to add repeats vectorially 5' of the early region, to form a middle region. The mechanism that was established in the common anthropoid lineage for the addition of repeats at a definite site in the coding region was transmitted to both platyrrhines and catarrhines, enabling each to generate its middle region independently. The process of vectorial repeat addition continued in two platyrrhine sublineages after their divergence from each other.     

Catarrhine phylogeny: noncoding DNA evidence for a diphyletic origin of the mangabeys and for a human-chimpanzee clade

Maximum-parsimony and maximum-likelihood analyses of two of the serum albumin gene's intron sequences from 24 catarrhines (17 cercopithecid and 7 hominid) and 3 platyrrhines (an outgroup to the catarrhines) yielded results on catarrhine phylogeny that are congruent with those obtained with noncoding sequences of the gamma(1)-gamma(2) globin gene genomic region, using only those flanking and intergenic gamma sequences that in their history were not involved in gene conversion. A data set that combined in a tandem alignment these two sets of noncoding DNA orthologues from the two unlinked nuclear genomic loci yielded the following confirmatory results both on the course of cladistic branchings (the divisions in a cladistic classification of higher ranking taxa into subordinate taxa) and on the ages of the taxa (each taxon representing a clade). The cercopithecid branch of catarrhines, at approximately 14 Ma (mega annum) divided into Colobini (the leaf-eating Old World monkeys) and Cercopithecini (the cheek-pouched Old World monkeys). At approximately 10-9 Ma, Colobini divided into an African clade, Colobina, and an Asian clade, Presbytina; similarly at this time level, Cercopithecini divided into Cercopithecina (the guenons, patas, and green monkeys) and Papionina. At approximately 7 Ma, Papionina divided into Macaca, Cercocebus, and Papio. At approximately 5 Ma, Cercocebus divided subgenerically into C. (Cercocebus) for terrestrial mangabeys and C. (Mandrillus) for drills and mandrills, while at approximately 4 Ma Papio divided subgenerically into P. (Locophocebus) for arboreal mangabeys, P. (Theropithecus) for gelada baboons, and P. (Papio) for hamadryas baboons. In turn, the hominid branch of catarrhines at approximately 18 Ma divided into Hylobatini (gibbons and siamangs) and Hominini; at approximately 14 Ma, Hominini divided into Pongina (orangutans) and Hominina; at approximately 7 Ma, Hominina divided into Gorilla and Homo; and at approximately 6-5 Ma, Homo divided subgenerically into H. (Homo) for humans and H. (Pan) for common and bonobo chimpanzees. Rates of noncoding DNA evolution were assessed using a data set of noncoding gamma sequence orthologues that represented 18 catarrhines, 16 platyrrhines, 3 non-anthropoid primates (2 tarsiers and 1 strepsirhine), and rabbit (as outgroup to the primates). Results obtained with this data set revealed a faster rate of nucleotide substitutions in the early primate lineage to the anthropoid (platyrrhine/catarrhine) ancestor than from that ancestor to the present. Rates were slower in catarrhines than in platyrrhines, slower in the cheek-pouched than in the leaf-eating cercopithecids, and slower yet in the hominids. On relating these results to data on brain sizes and life spans, it was suggested that life-history strategies that favor intelligence and longer life spans also select for decreases in de novo mutation rates.     

Anatomy of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses in Aegyptopithecus and early Miocene African catarrhines

Neontological comparisons suggest that paranasal sinus anatomy is diagnostic of several catarrhine clades such as Cercopithecoidea, Hominoidea, Homininae, and Ponginae. However, while the loss of sinuses in cercopithecoids is generally recognized as a derived condition, determining the polarity of character-state changes within noncercopithecoid catarrhines requires knowledge of the primitive catarrhine condition. To address this problem, the paranasal sinus anatomy of Aegyptopithecus and several early Miocene catarrhines was investigated. Two partial facial skeletons of Aegyptopithecus were subjected to computed tomography in order to reveal their internal anatomy. These data were compared with facial and palatal specimens of Proconsul, Limnopithecus, Dendropithecus, Rangwapithecus, and Kalepithecus in the National Museums of Kenya in Nairobi, and to wet and dry specimens of living taxa. Results confirm that cercopithecoid paranasal anatomy is derived, and reveal that the sinus anatomy of stem catarrhines included a hominoid-like maxillary sinus as well as an ethmofrontal system like that of hominines. Accordingly, these two features do not constitute evidence for the hominoid, hominid, or hominine status of any fossil species. Conversely, the absence of the ethmofrontal sinus system in Sivapithecus and Pongo is synapomorphic. In addition, features of the nasal cavity of Limnopithecus and Kalepithecus support previous suggestions that these taxa are stem catarrhines rather than hominoids.     

Sex determination in Miocene catarrhine primates

Canines of fossil hominoids and primitive catarrhines from several early, middle, and late Miocene sites were analyzed according to the shape indices described in Kelley (1995) and compared to those of males and females of extant great apes. In bivariate plots of the fossil canines utilizing the indices, 90% of the upper canines and 85% of the lower canines fell within or just outside the exclusively male or exclusively female territories delimited by the extant great apes. The remainder fell in the male-female overlap zones. Sex assignments based on these distributions were nearly 100% concordant with classifications according to canine height, suggesting a high degree of accuracy. There were various taxon-specific shifts in bivariate space among fossil genera, reflecting subtle differences in canine shape between taxa within the overall pattern of similarity to extant great apes as a whole. In many cases these shifts are matched by particular extant-ape species and subspecies, while other fossil taxa have no exact analogue for canine shape among the extant great apes. However, the pattern of spatial segregation of canines identified as either male or female at each of the sites largely mirrors that of males and females within the extant-ape sample, indicating that Miocene catarrhines shared with extant great apes a common pattern of shape differences between male and female canines, regardless of taxonspecific morphologies. These observations demonstrate that the canines of fossil catarrhines can be sexed with a high degree of confidence based solely on intrinsic features of shape. This will permit more reliable characterizations of morphological sexual dimorphism among fossil species. It is also argued that canine shape is a more reliable indicator of sex in fossil taxa than are canine/molar size ratios. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of early Miocene catarrhines from Sihong, China.

Paleontological investigations at sites in Sihong County, Jiangsu Province, China since 1981 have yielded a sizeable collection of previously undescribed fossil catarrhines from the Xiacaowan Formation. The associated vertebrate fauna indicates a late early Miocene age (correlating with MN 4, late Orleanian of Europe, approximately 17-18 Ma), which establishes the Sihong primates as the earliest known catarrhines from Eurasia. The fossil primates are assigned to two species: Dionysopithecus shuangouensis Li, 1978 and Platodontopithecus jianghuaiensis Gu & Lin, 1983. Although the new material from Sihong consists mainly of isolated teeth, it does provide important new information on the anatomy of Dionysopithecus and Platodontopithecus that helps to clarify their phylogenetic and taxonomic status. Previous studies have suggested that the Sihong catarrhines might be closely related to the proconsulids from the early Miocene of East Africa. However, with more extensive material available for comparison, the Sihong primates can now be shown to share a number of key derived features with pliopithecids. This new evidence helps to resolve a longstanding problem concerning the origins of the Pliopithecidae. It was previously considered that specialized pliopithecids migrated into Europe during MN 5, originating from an unknown antecedent and location in Africa. Recognition that the Sihong primates have affinities with pliopithecids, but are more primitive, suggests that the initial differentiation and diversification of the clade may have taken place in Asia rather than Africa. The earliest Eurasian catarrhines probably migrated into tropical Asia as part of a major faunal interchange with Africa that occurred during MN 3.     

Supernumerary molars in anthropoidea,adapidae, and Archaeolemur: Implications for primate dental homologies

The model of primate dental homologies and development recently proposed by Schwartz ('75, '78) is re-evaluated in view of documented exceptions to his account of postcanine supernumerary teeth in both anthropoids and prosimians. Schwartz concluded that catarrhines and living indriids retain only two true molars in each dental quadrant. As many as six molars on one side of the jaw can develop in rare instances in catarrhines, and supernumerary molars are also known for a wide range of other primates, including Cebidae, Adapidae, and subfossil Indriidae. Polydontia cannot be explained exclusively by atavistic development. More convincing explanations regard supernumerary teeth as the result of excessive growth of the dental lamina or localized twinning of tooth buds during early development. Conventional dental formulae of catarrhines and indriids including three permanent molars remain the most plausible.     

Dental Eruption Sequences in Fossil Colobines and the Evolution of Primate Life Histories

Unlike other catarrhines, colobines show early molar eruption relative to that of the anterior dentition. The pattern is variable, with Asian genera (Presbytina) showing a greater variability than the African genera (Colobina). The polarity of early relative molar eruption, as well as the degree to which it is related to phylogeny, are unclear. Schultz (1935) suggested that the trend reflects phylogeny and is primitive for catarrhines. More recently, however, researchers have proposed that life history and dietary hypotheses account for early relative molar eruption. If the colobine eruption pattern is primitive for catarrhines, it implies that cercopithecines and hominoids converged on delayed relative molar eruption. Alternatively, if the colobine condition is derived, factors such as diet and mortality patterns probably shaped colobine eruption patterns. Here we update our knowledge on eruption sequences of living colobines, and explore the evolutionary history of the colobine dental eruption pattern by examining fossil colobine taxa from Eurasia (Mesopithecus) and Africa (Kuseracolobus aramisi and Colobus sp.) and the basal cercopithecoid Victoriapithecus macinnesi. We scored specimens per Harvati (2000). The Late Miocene-Early Pliocene Mesopithecus erupts the second molar early relative to the incisors, while the Early Pliocene Kuseracolobus aramisi does not. These results demonstrate that the common colobine tendency for early molar eruption relative to the anterior dentition had appeared by the Late Miocene, and that some of the diversity observed among living colobines was already established in the Late Miocene/Early Pliocene. We discuss the implications of these results for phylogenetic, life history, and dietary hypotheses of dental development.     

Enamel hypoplasia in the deciduous teeth of early Miocene catarrhines: evidence of perinatal physiological stress

Enamel hypoplasia (EH) is a deficiency in enamel thickness due to physiological insults that compromise ameloblast function during the secretory phase of amelogenesis. The prevalence of EH in the deciduous teeth of nonhuman primates is largely unknown. One exception is the recent discovery of EH in the deciduous teeth of extant great apes which exhibit significant differences in prevalence between genera (Lukacs, 1999 a, 2000 a, Am. J. phys. Anthrop.110, 351-363). EH in deciduous teeth of other primates, living and fossil, remain undocumented. This communication describes a "plane form" type of EH known as localized hypoplasia of primary canines (LHPC) (Skinner, 1986 a, Am. J. phys. Anthrop.69, 59-69) in early Miocene catarrhines from Kenya. Specimens were examined macroscopically, with a 10x hand lens and with a variable power (10-30x) binocular microscope. Fédération Dentaire International (FDI)/Defects of Dental Enamel (DDE) standards were employed in recognition and recording of enamel defects (Fédération Dentaire International, 1982, Int. Dent. J.32, 159-167; Clarkson, 1989, Adv. Dental Res.3, 104-109). Size, shape and location of defects were measured and recorded on an outline drawing of the tooth crown. The Kenya National Museum study sample includes six genera of early Miocene catarrhines (n=66 specimens, with n=80 teeth). Seven deciduous teeth were afflicted with EH, yielding an overall prevalence of 8.75%. Two taxa, Kalepithecus (n=1 deciduous canine) and Proconsul (n=3 deciduous canines), were affected with LHPC. Expression of LHPC in fossil catarrhines is consistent with the expression of EH observed in skeletal samples of extant great apes. This report establishes an approximately 17-23 Ma antiquity for EH among early catarrhines and suggests that the neonatal stage of ontogenetic development was sufficiently stressful physiologically to produce disruption in amelogenesis. These physiological stresses impacted neonates of fossil taxa with a wide range of adult body sizes, from large-bodied Proconsul major ( approximately 75 kg) to one of the smaller-bodied catarrhines, Kalepithecus ( approximately 5 kg).     

Astragalar morphology of late Eocene anthropoids from the Fayum Depression (Egypt) and the origin of catarrhine primates

The phylogenetic relationships of the late Eocene anthropoids Catopithecus browni and Proteopithecus sylviae are currently a matter of debate, with opinion divided as to whether these taxa are stem or crown anthropoids. The phylogenetic position of Catopithecus is of particular interest, for, unlike the highly generalized genus Proteopithecus, this taxon shares apomorphic dental and postcranial features with more derived undoubted catarrhines that appear in the same region 1-2 Ma later. If these apomorphies are homologous and Catopithecus is a stem catarrhine, the unique combination of plesiomorphic and apomorphic features preserved in this anthropoid would have important implications for our understanding of the crown anthropoid morphotype and the pattern of morphological character transformations that occurred during the early phases of stem catarrhine evolution.Well-preserved astragali referrable to Proteopithecus, Catopithecus, and the undoubted early Oligocene stem catarrhine Aegyptopithecus have provided additional morphological evidence that allows us to further evaluate competing hypotheses of interrelationships among Eocene-Oligocene Afro-Arabian anthropoids. Qualitative observations and multivariate morphometric analyses reveal that the astragalar morphology of Proteopithecus is very similar to that of early Oligocene parapithecids and living and extinct small-bodied platyrrhines, and strengthens the hypothesis that the morphological pattern shared by these taxa is primitive within crown Anthropoidea. In contrast, Catopithecus departs markedly from the predicted crown anthropoid astragalar morphotype and shares a number of apomorphic features (e.g., deep cotylar fossa, laterally projecting fibular facet, trochlear asymmetry, mediolaterally wide astragalar head) with Aegyptopithecus and Miocene-Recent catarrhines. The evidence from the astragalus complements other independent data from the dentition, humerus and femur of Catopithecus that support this taxon's stem catarrhine status, and we continue to maintain that oligopithecines are stem catarrhines that constitute the sister group of a clade containing propliopithecines and Miocene-Recent catarrhines.     

New material of Qatrania from Egypt with comments on the phylogenetic position of the parapithecidae (primates,Anthropoidea)

New material of the early anthropoid primate Qatrania wingi and a new species of that genus are described. Several features of the dental anatomy show that Qatrania, while quite primitive relative to other anthropoids in many ways, is most likely a parapithecid primate. The new material suggests that several dental features previously thought to ally parapithecids with the catarrhine primates were actually evolved in parallel in catarrhines and some parapithecids. Furthermore, all nonparapithecid anthropoids (including platyrrhines and catarrhines) share a suite of derived dental and postcranial features not found in parapithecids. Therefore, parapithecid origins may predate the platyrrhine/catarrhine split.     

Chorionic gonadotropin has a recent origin within primates and an evolutionary history of selection

Chorionic gonadotropin (CG) is a critical signal in establishing pregnancy in humans and some other primates, but this placentally expressed hormone has not been found in other mammalian orders. The gene for one of its two subunits (CG beta subunit [CGbeta]) arose by duplication from the luteinizing hormone beta subunit gene (LHbeta), present in all mammals tested. In this study, 14 primate and related mammalian species were examined by Southern blotting and DNA sequencing to determine where in mammalian phylogeny the CGbeta gene originated. Bats (order Chiroptera), flying lemur (order Dermoptera), strepsirrhine primates, and tarsiers do not have a CGbeta gene, although they possess one copy of the LHbeta gene. The CGbeta gene first arose in the common ancestor of the anthropoid primates (New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, apes, and humans), after the anthropoids diverged from tarsiers. At least two subsequent duplication events occurred in the catarrhine primates, all of which possess multiple CGbeta copies. The LHbeta-CGbeta family of genes has undergone frequent gene conversion among the catarrhines, as well as periods of strong positive selection in the New World monkeys (platyrrhines). In addition, newly generated DNA sequences from the promoter of the CG alpha subunit gene indicate that platyrrhine monkeys use a different mechanism of alpha gene expression control than that found in catarrhines.     

Platyrrhine color signals: New horizons to pursue

Like catarrhines, some platyrrhines show exposed and reddish skin, raising the possibility that reddish signals have evolved convergently. This variation in skin exposure and color combined with sex‐linked polymorphic color vision in platyrrhines presents a unique, and yet underexplored, opportunity to investigate the relative importance of chromatic versus achromatic signals, the influence of color perception on signal evolution, and to understand primate communication broadly. By coding the facial skin exposure and color of 96 platyrrhines, 28 catarrhines, 7 strepsirrhines, 1 tarsiiform, and 13 nonprimates, and by simulating the ancestral character states for these traits, we provide the first analysis of the distribution and evolution of facial skin exposure and color in platyrrhini. We highlight ways in which studying the presence and use of color signals by platyrrhines and other primates will enhance our understanding of the evolution of color signals, and the forces shaping color vision.     

A field study of infection with human T-cell leukemia virus among African primates

African non-human primates were surveyed seroepidemiologically for natural infection of human T-cell leukemia virus type I (ATLV/HTLV-I) or its closely related virus(es). Materials from three genera (Cercopithecus, Papio, and Theropithecus), four species (grivet monkey, Anubis baboon, Hamadryas baboon, and gelada), totalling 983 animals under natural conditions, were obtained in a field study in Ethiopia. Virus infection was determined by the indirect immunofluorescence test using HTLV-I specific antigens. Animals seropositive for HTLV-I were found among grivet monkeys and Anubis baboons including the hybrid offspring between Anubis and Hamadryas baboons but not pure-Hamadryas baboons and geladas. From these results, the HTLV-I family was proved to be widespread on the African continent and was regarded as a common retrovirus among catarrhines.     

The phylogenetic relationships of the early catarrhine primates: a review of the current evidence

This paper presents a review of the evolutionary relationships of the early catarrhine primates. The first stage of the analysis involves the reconstruction of the inferred ancestral morphotypes of the major groups of extant anthropoids. The introduction of the fossil taxa into the phylogenetic scheme represents the second and final stage of the analysis. The results of this cladistic analysis suggests that: (1) the parapithecids are a specialized group of basal anthropoids, (2) Oligopithecus savagei may represent the earliest recognizable catarrhine, (3) Propliopithecus (= Aegvptopithecus) and Pliopithecus apparently represent the successive sister taxa to the modern catarrhines, (4) Dendropithecus and Proconsul are best regarded as basal catarrhines of modern aspect, and (5) Victoriapithecus is a primitive cercopithecoid monkey which represents the siter taxon of the extant Old World monkeys.     

铁箍散(五味子科)的核型研究

采用常规制片方法首次对铁箍散(Schisandra propinqua（Wall.）Baill.)做了核型分析,结果表明铁箍散体细胞染色体数目为2n=28,核型公式为2n=2x=20m+8sm,染色体相对长度组成2n=28=2L+14M₂+8M₁+4S,染色体长度比为2.14,核型类型为2B型,核型不对称系数0.59,无次缢痕和随体。铁箍散的核型特点表明其在五味子属中处于较进化的地位。     

Karyotype of continuous cell lines. I. The karyotype variability of M-HeLa cells cultured by static and roll-tube methods

A comparative investigation of three M-HeLa sublines, being of common origin but differing in cultivation technique (roller or static), was undertaken using G- and C-banding. It is shown that the M-HeLa sublines of a non-clonal origin differ in the level of their karyotype variability as compared to most human and animal lines studied earlier. A definite set of normal and marker chromosomes, as well as a typical karyotype, was revealed for either subline tested. The change of the static technique of cultivation into the roller one was accompanied with changes in the modal class, with the increase in polyploid cell number and proliferation index. It is postulated that the change of cultivation technique may result in selection of defined cell types due to the pre-existed karyotype variability.     

Chromosome numbers and karyotypes within the Ranunculus alpestris-group (Ranunculaceae)

The Ranunculus alpestris-group comprises six white-flowered species growing in mostly alpine zones of central and southern European mountains. They all are diploid with 2n=16 chromosomes. The common karyotype of the group was established based on 75 metaphases (6–26 metaphases per species). The haploid karyotype consists of four metacentric (chromosomes 1, 3, 6, 7) and four more or less subtelocentric chromosomes (2, 4, 5, 8). This karyotype is similar to that of other white-flowered European Ranunculus species as well as the yellow-flowered R. thora-group. Analysis of karyotypes partly confirms relationships inferred from molecular phylogenies. Species with this karyotype are placed on rather basal branches in existing phylogenies, which may indicate that this karyotype is primitive within the genus Ranunculus.     

Karyology and karyotype analysis of diploid freshwater planarian populations of the Dugesia gonocephala group (Platyhelminthes,Tricladida) found in Sardinia

Karyology and karyotype analysis were carried out on freshwater planarian populations of the Dugesia gonocephala group. The strains studied were all diploid with chromosomic number 2n = 16; n = 8. They came from 12 sites mainly localized on the west of the island of Sardinia. Three karyotypes indicated with the letters A, B and C were found in which eight homomorphic pairs of chromosomes were easily identified. In karyotype A all chromosomes are metacentric. Ten populations of the twelve examined showed this karyotype which appears to be the most common. In karyotype B the seventh pair of chromosomes is submetacentric. This karyotype is quite common having been previously found in another eight Sardinian localities. Karyotype C differs from the others in having submetacentric third and seventh pairs of the chromosome complement. It was found in only one locality. The differences observed between these three karyotypes could be interpreted either as sign of differentiation at species level, or as an intraspecific variation due to chromosome mutations (pericentric inversions). This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Cerebral venous hemodynamics and the basicranium of Cebus

The study of basicranial foramina has played an important role in primatological investigations. They are often the only clues for deciphering cerebral vascular evolution in fossil forms. This study illustrates the significance of considering foraminal shape when analyzing or describing basicranial anatomy in living and fossil primates. It is suggested that certain hemodynamic properties of cerebral venous drainage in Cebus represent patterns that were most likely present in ancestral catarrhines.