Mossy fibre contact triggers the targeting of Kv4.2 potassium channels to dendrites and synapses in developing cerebellar granule neurons

Compartmentalization of neuronal function is achieved by highly localized clustering of ion channels in discrete subcellular membrane domains. Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels exhibit highly variable cellular and subcellular patterns of expression. Here, we describe novel activity-dependent synaptic targeting of Kv4.2, a dendritic Kv channel, in cerebellar granule cells (GCs). In vivo, Kv4.2 channels are highly expressed in cerebellar glomeruli, specializations of GC dendrites that form synapses with mossy fibres. In contrast, in cultured GCs, Kv4.2 was found localized, not to dendrites but to cell bodies. To investigate the role of synaptic contacts, we developed a co-culture system with cells from pontine grey nucleus, the origin of mossy fibres. In these co-cultures, synaptic structures formed, and Kv4.2 was now targeted to these synaptic sites in a manner dependent on synaptic activity. Activation of NMDA- and/or AMPA-type glutamate receptors was necessary for the targeting of Kv4.2 in co-cultures, and activation of these receptor systems in GC monocultures induced dendritic targeting of Kv4.2 in the absence of synapse formation. These results indicate that the proper targeting of Kv4.2 channels is dynamically regulated by synaptic activity. This activity-dependent regulation of Kv4.2 localization provides a crucial yet dynamic link between synaptic activity and dendritic excitability.     

Specific Sorting and Post-Golgi Trafficking of Dendritic Potassium Channels in Living Neurons

Proper membrane localization of ion channels is essential for the function of neuronal cells. Particularly, the computational ability of dendrites depends on the localization of different ion channels in specific subcompartments. However, the molecular mechanisms that control ion channel localization in distinct dendritic subcompartments are largely unknown. Here, we developed a quantitative live cell imaging method to analyze protein sorting and post-Golgi vesicular trafficking. We focused on two dendritic voltage-gated potassium channels that exhibit distinct localizations: Kv2.1 in proximal dendrites and Kv4.2 in distal dendrites. Our results show that Kv2.1 and Kv4.2 channels are sorted into two distinct populations of vesicles at the Golgi apparatus. The targeting of Kv2.1 and Kv4.2 vesicles occurred by distinct mechanisms as evidenced by their requirement for specific peptide motifs, cytoskeletal elements, and motor proteins. By live cell and super-resolution imaging, we identified a novel trafficking machinery important for the localization of Kv2.1 channels. Particularly, we identified non-muscle myosin II as an important factor in Kv2.1 trafficking. These findings reveal that the sorting of ion channels at the Golgi apparatus and their subsequent trafficking by unique molecular mechanisms are crucial for their specific localizations within dendrites.     

The A-type potassium channel Kv4.2 is a substrate for the mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK

The mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK has recently become a focus of studies of synaptic plasticity and learning and memory. Due to the prominent role of potassium channels in regulating the electrical properties of membranes, modulation of these channels by ERK could play an important role in mediating learning-related synaptic plasticity in the CNS. Kv4.2 is a Shal-type potassium channel that passes an A-type current and is localized to dendrites and cell bodies in the hippocampus. The sequence of Kv4.2 contains several consensus sites for ERK phosphorylation. In the present studies, we tested the hypothesis that Kv4.2 is an ERK substrate. We determined that the Kv4.2 C-terminal cytoplasmic domain is an effective ERK2 substrate, and that it is phosphorylated at three sites: Thr(602), Thr(607), and Ser(616). We used this information to develop antibodies that recognize Kv4.2 phosphorylated by ERK2. One of our phospho-site-selective antibodies was generated using a triply phosphorylated peptide as the antigen. We determined that this antibody recognizes ERK-phosphorylated Kv4.2 in COS-7 cells transfected with Kv4.2 and native ERK-phosphorylated Kv4.2 in the rat hippocampus. These observations indicate that Kv4.2 is a substrate for ERK in vitro and in vivo, and suggest that ERK may regulate potassium-channel function by direct phosphorylation of the pore-forming alpha subunit.     

Bidirectional regulation of dendritic voltage-gated potassium channels by the fragile X mental retardation protein

How transmitter receptors modulate neuronal signaling by regulating voltage-gated ion channel expression remains an open question. Here we report dendritic localization of mRNA of Kv4.2 voltage-gated potassium channel, which regulates synaptic plasticity, and its local translational regulation by fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) linked to fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common heritable mental retardation. FMRP suppression of Kv4.2 is revealed by elevation of Kv4.2 in neurons from fmr1 knockout (KO) mice and in neurons expressing Kv4.2-3'UTR that binds FMRP. Moreover, treating hippocampal slices from fmr1 KO mice with Kv4 channel blocker restores long-term potentiation induced by moderate stimuli. Surprisingly, recovery of Kv4.2 after N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-induced degradation also requires FMRP, likely due to NMDAR-induced FMRP dephosphorylation, which turns off FMRP suppression of Kv4.2. Our study of FMRP regulation of Kv4.2 deepens our knowledge of NMDAR signaling and reveals a FMRP target of potential relevance to FXS.     

Regulation of dendritic excitability by activity-dependent trafficking of the A-type K+ channel subunit Kv4.2 in hippocampal neurons

Voltage-gated A-type K+ channel Kv4.2 subunits are highly expressed in the dendrites of hippocampal CA1 neurons. However, little is known about the subcellular distribution and trafficking of Kv4.2-containing channels. Here we provide evidence for activity-dependent trafficking of Kv4.2 in hippocampal spines and dendrites. Live imaging and electrophysiological recordings showed that Kv4.2 internalization is induced rapidly upon glutamate receptor stimulation. Kv4.2 internalization was clathrin mediated and required NMDA receptor activation and Ca2+ influx. In dissociated hippocampal neurons, mEPSC amplitude depended on functional Kv4.2 expression level and was enhanced by stimuli that induced Kv4.2 internalization. Long-term potentiation (LTP) induced by brief glycine application resulted in synaptic insertion of GluR1-containing AMPA receptors along with Kv4.2 internalization. We also found evidence of Kv4.2 internalization upon synaptically evoked LTP in CA1 neurons of hippocampal slice cultures. These results present an additional mechanism for synaptic integration and plasticity through the activity-dependent regulation of Kv4.2 channel surface expression.     

IA in play

Everyone agrees about how long-term potentiation (LTP) is induced-NMDA receptor activation-but much remains to be learned about how the increase in the strength of a synaptic connection between two neurons is expressed. In this issue of Neuron, Kim et al. report a new form of NMDAR-dependent plasticity that may contribute to LTP: internalization of postsynaptic Kv4.2 potassium channels that mediate transient IA-type outward current in dendrites.     

Unique roles of SK and Kv4.2 potassium channels in dendritic integration

Focal activation of glutamate receptors in distal dendrites of hippocampal pyramidal cells triggers voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channel-mediated plateau potentials that are confined to the stimulated dendrite. We examined the role of dendritic K(+) conductances in determining the amplitude, duration, and spatial compartmentalization of plateau potentials. Manipulations that blocked SK-type Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels, including apamin and BAPTA dialysis, increased the duration of plateau potentials without affecting their amplitude or compartmentalization. Manipulations that blocked Kv4.2 A-type K(+) channels, including a dominant-negative Kv4.2 construct and 4-aminopyridine, increased the amplitude of plateau potentials by allowing them to recruit neighboring dendrites. Prolongation of plateau potentials or block of Kv4.2 channels at branch points facilitated the ability of dendritic excitation to trigger fast action potentials. SK channels thus underlie repolarization of dendritic plateau potentials, whereas Kv4.2 channels confine these potentials to single dendritic branches, and both act in concert to regulate synaptic integration.     

Regulation of Kv4.2 channels by glutamate in cultured hippocampal neurons

Somatodendritic voltage-dependent K⁺ currents (Kv4.2) channels mediate transient A-type K⁺ currents and play critical roles in controlling neuronal excitability. Accumulating evidence has indicated that Kv4.2 channels are key regulatory components of the signaling pathways that lead to synaptic plasticity. In contrast to the extensive studies of glutamate-induced AMPA [(±) α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid hydrate] receptors redistribution, less is known about the regulation of Kv4.2 by glutamate. In this study, we report that brief treatment with glutamate rapidly reduced total Kv4.2 levels in cultured hippocampal neurons. The glutamate effect was mimicked by NMDA, but not by AMPA. The effect of glutamate on Kv4.2 was dramatically attenuated by pre-treatment of NMDA receptors antagonist MK-801 [(5 S ,10 R )-(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d]cyclohepten-5,10-imine hydrogen maleate] or removal of extracellular Ca²⁺. Immunocytochemical analysis showed a loss of Kv4.2 clusters on the neuronal soma and dendrites following glutamate treatment, which was also dependent on the activation of NMDA receptors and the influx of Ca²⁺. Furthermore, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings revealed that glutamate caused a hyperpolarized shift in the inactivation curve of A-type K⁺ currents, while the activation curve remained unchanged. These results demonstrate a glutamate-induced alteration of Kv4.2 channels in cultured hippocampal neurons, which might be involved in activity-dependent changes of neuronal excitability and synaptic plasticity.     

The RNA binding protein TLS is translocated to dendritic spines by mGluR5 activation and regulates spine morphology

Neuronal dendrites, together with dendritic spines, exhibit enormously diverse structure. Selective targeting and local translation of mRNAs in dendritic spines have been implicated in synapse remodeling or synaptic plasticity. The mechanism of mRNA transport to the postsynaptic site is a fundamental question in local dendritic translation. TLS (translocated in liposarcoma), previously identified as a component of hnRNP complexes, unexpectedly showed somatodendritic localization in mature hippocampal pyramidal neurons. In the present study, TLS was translocated to dendrites and was recruited to dendrites not only via microtubules but also via actin filaments. In mature hippocampal pyramidal neurons, TLS accumulated in the spines at excitatory postsynapses upon mGluR5 activation, which was accompanied by an increased RNA content in dendrites. Consistent with the in vitro studies, TLS-null hippocampal pyramidal neurons exhibited abnormal spine morphology and lower spine density. Our results indicate that TLS participates in mRNA sorting to the dendritic spines induced by mGluR5 activation and regulates spine morphology to stabilize the synaptic structure.     

Subcellular segregation of two A-type K+ channel proteins in rat central neurons.

In the mammalian nervous system, K+ channels regulate diverse aspects of neuronal function and are encoded by a large set of K+ channel genes. The roles of different K+ channel proteins could be dictated by their localization to specific subcellular domains. We report that two K+ channel polypeptides, Kv1.4 and Kv4.2, which form transient (A-type) K+ channels when expressed in Xenopus oocytes, are segregated in rat central neurons. Kv1.4 protein is targeted to axons and possibly terminals, while Kv4.2 is concentrated in dendrites and somata. This differential distribution implies distinct roles for these channel proteins in vivo. Their localizations suggest that Kv1.4 and Kv4.2 may regulate synaptic transmission via presynaptic, or postsynaptic mechanisms, respectively.     

A role for Kif17 in transport of Kv4.2

Although kinesins are known to transport neuronal proteins, it is not known what role they play in the targeting of their cargos to specific subcellular compartments in neurons. Here we present evidence that the K+ channel Kv4.2, which is a major regulator of dendritic excitability, is transported to dendrites by the kinesin isoform Kif17. We show that a dominant negative construct against Kif17 dramatically inhibits localization to dendrites of both introduced and endogenous Kv4.2, but those against other kinesins found in dendrites do not. Kv4.2 colocalizes with Kif17 but not with other kinesin isoforms in dendrites of cortical neurons. Native Kv4.2 and Kif17 coimmunoprecipitate from brain lysate, and introduced, tagged versions of the two proteins coimmunoprecipitate from COS cell lysate, indicating that the two proteins interact, either directly or indirectly. The interaction between Kif17 and Kv4.2 appears to occur through the extreme C terminus of Kv4.2 and not through the dileucine motif. Thus, the dileucine motif does not determine the localization of Kv4.2 by causing the channel to interact with a specific motor protein. In support of this conclusion, we found that the dileucine motif mediates dendritic targeting of CD8 independent of Kif17. Together our data show that Kif17 is probably the motor that transports Kv4.2 to dendrites but suggest that this motor does not, by itself, specify dendritic localization of the channel.     

SAP97 directs the localization of Kv4.2 to spines in hippocampal neurons: regulation by CaMKII

The pore-forming alpha-subunit Kv4.2 is a key constituent of the A-type channel and critically involved in the regulation of dendritic excitability and plasticity. Here we show that Kv4.2 is enriched in the postsynaptic density (PSD) fraction and specifically interacts with synapse-associated protein 97 (SAP97). This interaction requires an intact C terminus of Kv4.2 and occurs via the PDZ domains of SAP97. Pharmacologically induced translocation of SAP97 to spines also drives Kv4.2 to the PSD, whereas SAP97 lentivirally based RNA interference reduces Kv4.2 in the PSD. In addition, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)-dependent SAP97 phosphorylation regulates the subcellular localization of Kv4.2. These results show that SAP97-CaMKII pathway plays an important role for the trafficking of Kv4.2 to dendrites and spines.     

mRNA for the EAAC1 subtype of glutamate transporter is present in neuronal dendrites in vitro and dramatically increases in vivo after a seizure

The neuronal Na(+)-dependent glutamate transporter, excitatory amino acid carrier 1 (EAAC1, also called EAAT3), has been implicated in the control of synaptic spillover of glutamate, synaptic plasticity, and the import of cysteine for neuronal synthesis of glutathione. EAAC1 protein is observed in both perisynaptic regions of the synapse and in neuronal cell bodies. Although amino acid residues in the carboxyl terminal tail have been implicated in the dendritic targeting of EAAC1 protein, it is not known if mRNA for EAAC1 may also be targeted to dendrites. Sorting of mRNA to specific cellular domains provides a mechanism by which signals can rapidly increase translation in a local environment; this form of regulated translation has been linked to diverse biological phenomena ranging from establishment of polarity during embryogenesis to synapse development and synaptic plasticity. In the present study, EAAC1 mRNA sequences were amplified from dendritic samples that were mechanically harvested from low-density hippocampal neuronal cultures. In parallel analyses, mRNA for histone deacetylase 2 (HDAC-2) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) was not detected, suggesting that these samples are not contaminated with cell body or glial mRNAs. EAAC1 mRNA also co-localized with Map2a (a marker of dendrites) but not Tau1 (a marker of axons) in hippocampal neuronal cultures by in situ hybridization. In control rats, EAAC1 mRNA was observed in soma and proximal dendrites of hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Following pilocarpine- or kainate-induced seizures, EAAC1 mRNA was present in CA1 pyramidal cell dendrites up to 200μm from the soma. These studies provide the first evidence that EAAC1 mRNA localizes to dendrites and suggest that dendritic targeting of EAAC1 mRNA is increased by seizure activity and may be regulated by neuronal activity/depolarization.     

A role for dendritic translation of CaMKIIα mRNA in olfactory plasticity

Local protein synthesis in dendrites contributes to the synaptic modifications underlying learning and memory. The mRNA encoding the α subunit of the calcium/calmodulin dependent Kinase II (CaMKIIα) is dendritically localized and locally translated. A role for CaMKIIα local translation in hippocampus-dependent memory has been demonstrated in mice with disrupted CaMKIIα dendritic translation, through deletion of CaMKIIα 3'UTR. We studied the dendritic localization and local translation of CaMKIIα in the mouse olfactory bulb (OB), the first relay of the olfactory pathway, which exhibits a high level of plasticity in response to olfactory experience. CaMKIIα is expressed by granule cells (GCs) of the OB. Through in situ hybridization and synaptosome preparation, we show that CaMKIIα mRNA is transported in GC dendrites, synaptically localized and might be locally translated at GC synapses. Increases in the synaptic localization of CaMKIIα mRNA and protein in response to brief exposure to new odors demonstrate that they are activity-dependent processes. The activity-induced dendritic transport of CaMKIIα mRNA can be inhibited by an NMDA receptor antagonist and mimicked by an NMDA receptor agonist. Finally, in mice devoid of CaMKIIα 3'UTR, the dendritic localization of CaMKIIα mRNA is disrupted in the OB and olfactory associative learning is severely impaired. Our studies thus reveal a new functional modality for CaMKIIα local translation, as an essential determinant of olfactory plasticity.     

Dynamic visualization of local protein synthesis in hippocampal neurons

Using pharmacological approaches, several recent studies suggest that local protein synthesis is required for synaptic plasticity. Convincing demonstrations of bona fide dendritic protein synthesis in mammalian neurons are rare, however. We developed a protein synthesis reporter in which the coding sequence of green fluorescent protein is flanked by the 5' and 3' untranslated regions from CAMKII-alpha, conferring both dendritic mRNA localization and translational regulation. In cultured hippocampal neurons, we show that BDNF, a growth factor involved in synaptic plasticity, stimulates protein synthesis of the reporter in intact, mechanically, or "optically" isolated dendrites. The stimulation of protein synthesis is blocked by anisomycin and not observed in untreated neurons. In addition, dendrites appear to possess translational hot spots, regions near synapses where protein synthesis consistently occurs over time.     

The EJC factor eIF4AIII modulates synaptic strength and neuronal protein expression

Proper neuronal function and several forms of synaptic plasticity are highly dependent on precise control of mRNA translation, particularly in dendrites. We find that eIF4AIII, a core exon junction complex (EJC) component loaded onto mRNAs by pre-mRNA splicing, is associated with neuronal mRNA granules and dendritic mRNAs. eIF4AIII knockdown markedly increases both synaptic strength and GLUR1 AMPA receptor abundance at synapses. eIF4AIII depletion also increases ARC, a protein required for maintenance of long-term potentiation; arc mRNA, one of the most abundant in dendrites, is a natural target for nonsense-mediated decay (NMD). Numerous new NMD candidates, some with potential to affect synaptic activity, were also identified computationally. Two models are presented for how translation-dependent decay pathways such as NMD might advantageously function as critical brakes for protein synthesis in cells such as neurons that are highly dependent on spatially and temporally restricted protein expression.     

Dendritic LSm1/CBP80-mRNPs mark the early steps of transport commitment and translational control

Messenger RNA (mRNA) transport to neuronal dendrites is crucial for synaptic plasticity, but little is known of assembly or translational regulation of dendritic messenger ribonucleoproteins (mRNPs). Here we characterize a novel mRNP complex that is found in neuronal dendrites throughout the central nervous system and in some axonal processes of the spinal cord. The complex is characterized by the LSm1 protein, which so far has been implicated in mRNA degradation in nonneuronal cells. In brain, it associates with intact mRNAs. Interestingly, the LSm1-mRNPs contain the cap-binding protein CBP80 that associates with (pre)mRNAs in the nucleus, suggesting that the dendritic LSm1 complex has been assembled in the nucleus. In support of this notion, neuronal LSm1 is partially nuclear and inhibition of mRNA synthesis increases its nuclear localization. Importantly, CBP80 is also present in the dendrites and both LSm1 and CBP80 shift significantly into the spines upon stimulation of glutamergic receptors, suggesting that these mRNPs are translationally activated and contribute to the regulated local protein synthesis.     

Active dendrites,potassium channels and synaptic plasticity

The dendrites of CA1 pyramidal neurons in the hippocampus express numerous types of voltage-gated ion channel, but the distributions or densities of many of these channels are very non-uniform. Sodium channels in the dendrites are responsible for action potential (AP) propagation from the axon into the dendrites (back-propagation); calcium channels are responsible for local changes in dendritic calcium concentrations following back-propagating APs and synaptic potentials; and potassium channels help regulate overall dendritic excitability. Several lines of evidence are presented here to suggest that back-propagating APs, when coincident with excitatory synaptic input, can lead to the induction of either long-term depression (LTD) or long-term potentiation (LTP). The induction of LTD or LTP is correlated with the magnitude of the rise in intracellular calcium. When brief bursts of synaptic potentials are paired with postsynaptic APs in a theta-burst pairing paradigm, the induction of LTP is dependent on the invasion of the AP into the dendritic tree. The amplitude of the AP in the dendrites is dependent, in part, on the activity of a transient, A-type potassium channel that is expressed at high density in the dendrites and correlates with the induction of the LTP. Furthermore, during the expression phase of the LTP, there are local changes in dendritic excitability that may result from modulation of the functioning of this transient potassium channel. The results support the view that the active properties of dendrites play important roles in synaptic integration and synaptic plasticity of these neurons.     

Differential expression of Kv4 pore-forming and KChIP auxiliary subunits in rat uterus during pregnancy

Regulation of voltage-gated K(+) (K(v)) channel expression may be involved in controlling contractility of uterine smooth muscle cells during pregnancy. Functional expression of these channels is not only controlled by the levels of pore-forming subunits, but requires their association with auxiliary subunits. Specifically, rapidly inactivating K(v) current is prominent in myometrial cells and may be carried by complexes consisting of Kv4 pore-forming and KChIP auxiliary subunits. To determine the molecular identity of the channel complexes and their changes during pregnancy, we examined the expression and localization of these subunits in rat uterus. RT-PCR analysis revealed that rat uterus expressed all three Kv4 pore-forming subunits and KChIP2 and -4 auxiliary subunits. The expression of mRNAs for these subunits was dynamically and region selectively regulated during pregnancy. In the corpus, Kv4.2 mRNA level increased before parturition, whereas the expression of Kv4.1 and Kv4.3 mRNAs decreased during pregnancy. A marked increase in KChIP2 mRNA level was also seen at late gestation. In the cervix, the expression of all three pore-forming and two auxiliary subunit mRNAs increased at late gestation. Immunoprecipitation followed by immunoblot analysis indicated that Kv4.2-KChIP2 complexes were significant in uterus at late pregnancy. Kv4.2- and KChIP2-immunoreactive proteins were present in both circular and longitudinal myometrial cells. Finally, Kv4.2 and KChIP2 mRNA levels were similarly elevated in pregnant and nonpregnant corpora of one side-conceived rats. These results suggest that diffusible factors coordinate the pregnancy-associated changes in molecular compositions of myometrial Kv4-KChIP channel complexes.