三峡库区山区乡村功能多元化与坡耕地演变的耦合关系

探究快速城市化、工业化背景下,山区乡村功能多元化与坡耕地演变的耦合关系,对山区耕地保护和乡村可持续发展具有重要意义。从人地关系视角,构建了山区乡村功能多元化与坡耕地演变耦合关系测度模型,并以三峡库区奉节县为例,采用乡村功能评价、耦合协调度模型等方法,揭示其耦合关系及其驱动机制。结果表明:(1)奉节县各乡村功能均呈现发展的趋势,其中社会保障功能的发展最为明显,乡村功能综合指数呈现南北部增加、中部减少的特征,且南部增加幅度大于北部;(2)奉节县坡耕地占比呈现下降趋势,缓坡耕地减少最少,急陡坡耕地减少最多,呈现南部减少幅度小、北部减少幅度大的特征;(3)乡村功能多元化与缓坡耕地演变的耦合协调度呈下降的趋势,与陡坡耕地和急陡坡耕地的耦合协调度呈先降后升的趋势,其耦合响应类型可以归纳为可持续型、转型型、一致型和衰退型4种类型;(4)乡村功能多元化与坡耕地演变耦合变化主要受到自然、社会经济、政策等要素驱动,今后应当从发展生态农业、推行环境治理等方面来提高乡村功能发展与坡耕地利用之间的协调性。研究方法和研究结果可为其他山区坡耕地资源的优化利用、生态保护以及乡村可持续发展提供借鉴价值。     

Respiratory illness and home environment of ethnic groups

Factors contributing to differences in the prevalences of respiratory symptoms and diseases among ethnic groups were studied in primary schoolchildren living in 20 inner city areas of England in 1983. The raised prevalences of respiratory symptoms in these groups were compared with results from a national representative sample of children studied in 1982. Data on age, sex, respiratory illness, and social and environmental variables were obtained by questionnaire for 4815 children living in inner cities. The children were classified as white, Afro-Caribbean, Urdu, Gujarati, Punjabi, other Asian, or “other.” Significant differences in the prevalence of respiratory conditions were found among the ethnic groups after allowance was made for the effects of interfering variables. Except for asthma all conditions were most prevalent in Afro-Caribbeans and whites. In these two ethnic groups respiratory illness was significantly associated with belonging to a one parent family and the combined use of gas cookers and paraffin heaters at home.Respiratory illness was found to vary in prevalence among ethnic groups but may be perceived differently by different groups. Further studies, measuring lung function, are necessary.     

贫困山区新型农村合作医疗的发展现状——以通道侗族自治县为例

目的：调查贫困山区新农合发展现状及存在问题。方法：采用问卷调查法和访谈法,从新农合参合人、基层实施者及管理者的角度调查通道侗族自治县新农合发展情况。结果：该县参合率逐年增高;新农合制度本身已获得了该县广大农民及基层医务人员肯定及认可;基本实现了“小伤小病不出村,大病基本不出县”的就医格局。结论：该县新农合发展情况良好,但实施过程中还存在农民对政策了解不全面、筹资困难、监督制度不完善等问题。     

Mother-infant relations in captive woodchucks (Marmota monax)

Mother-infant relations in three litters of captive woodchucks were studied from birth until about one week after dispersal normally occurs in nature. Weaning correlated with dispersal age and with an increase in aggressive mother-infant relations and a decrease in solicitious behaviour.     

Effects of artificial feeding on aggressive behaviour of rhesus monkeys in India

Artificial feeding of rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), which provides the major food source for most rhesus groups in rural and urban habitats, is common practice in India. Such feeding results in significant increases in aggressive competition within the monkey groups: during feeding periods the frequencies of aggressive threats, chases, and attacks increased two to six times above those of non-feeding periods in each of eight different groups. Fighting behaviour did not increase in most groups studied, but did show a rise in one large urban group in Calcutta. The implications of these results for the management of primate breeding colonies are discussed.     

Effect of various periods of social isolation of juvenile rats on the level of their intraspecies aggression at a sexually mature age

Isolation of male outbred white rats from the same age rats at 12-30 and 15-30 days of postnatal life increases their aggressiveness in pubertal age and causes a change of aggressive reactions spectrum towards the decrease of attacks and increase of threats in relation to intruders. These changes in the ontogenetic formation of rats aggressive behaviour are not compensated by the experience of rats social intercourse in the period 30-70th days. A hypothesis is made about the existence of sensitive period of rats aggressive behaviour formation with the approximate limits 15th-30th days of postnatal life during which under the influence of contacts with rats of the same age prerequisites are created for consolidation of various agonistic reactions in resultant act of mature aggression.     

Violent behaviour among people with schizophrenia: a framework for investigations of causes, and effective treatment, and prevention

Robust evidence has accumulated showing that individuals who develop schizophrenia are at elevated risk when compared to the general population to engage in violence towards others. This violence impacts negatively on victims as well as perpetrators and poses a significant financial burden to society. It is posited that among violent offenders with schizophrenia there are three distinct types defined by the age of onset of antisocial and violent behaviour. The early starters display a pattern of antisocial behaviour that emerges in childhood or early adolescence, well before illness onset, and that remains stable across the lifespan. The largest group of violent offenders with schizophrenia show no antisocial behaviour prior to the onset of the illness and then repeatedly engage in aggressive behaviour towards others. A small group of individuals who display a chronic course of schizophrenia show no aggressive behaviour for one or two decades after illness onset and then engage in serious violence, often killing, those who care for them. We hypothesize that both the developmental processes and the proximal factors, such as symptoms of psychosis and drug misuse, associated with violent behaviour differ for the three types of offenders with schizophrenia, as do their needs for treatment.     

Changes in the structure of group behavior in callosotomized rhesus monkeys

The studies were performed on 4 intact and 3 callosotomized adult male rhesus monkeys that comprised one social group. Group behaviour of all the monkeys was investigated by the frequency method of social contacts registration. Both aggressive and friendly contacts were registered. The results obtained have shown a considerable decrease in social contacts of callosotomized rhesus monkeys, as compared to normal animals. The aggressive contacts prevailed in the behaviour of the operated monkeys. The data suggest that callosotomy does not only significantly decrease the frequency, but also alters the structure of social contacts in the rhesus monkeys.     

Micro-regional hypersensitivity variations to inhalant allergens in the city of Zagreb and Zagreb County

Depending on the geographic and climatic region and vegetation, allergenic plants are characteristic for certain areas and the pollen concentrations of various plant species depend on the fenophase of each single species and most of all on the climatic and meteorological conditions of a certain area. It is precisely because of these specific characteristics that the hypersensitivity of patients to various types of pollen allergens differs according to the geographic regions. The aim of this paper is to determine the frequency of inhalation allergies in adult population (> 19 years of age) caused by single types of allergens according to the defined space units (micro-regions) with special emphasis on the rural and urban areas. A number of 2,192 patients have been tested for allergy skin prick tests over a period of four years. Every patient was asked to fill in the questionnaire which contained 29 questions. The results of skin prick testing show that out of a total of 2,192 patients 86.72% were sensitized to pollen, 36.45% to mites, 2.46% to spores of fungi and mould and 5.1% of patients to other allergens which include the allergens of cockroaches, feathers and animal hair (p < 0.001). The largest number of poly-sensitized persons allergic to pollen allergens was sensitized to allergens from the pollen of plants that belong to the botanical family of grass. There were 25.36% patients mono-sensitized to individual allergens. In the northern and western parts of the city and the county, the majority of persons were sensitized to the birch pollen allergens, and this is statistically much more than the share of patients with the place of residence in the southern and eastern parts of the city and the county. In the southern and eastern locations prevails the share of sensitized persons to ambrosia which is statistically much more than the share of patients with the place of residence in the northern and western part of the city and the county.     

Urban and rural differences in mortality and causes of death in historical Poland

The purpose of this paper is to document and interpret urban-rural differences in mortality in the past. To this end, we used data on mortality in Wielkopolska, Poland, in the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. The data on mortality in rural areas (N = 1,173,910 deceased), small towns (N = 573,903 deceased), and Poznań, the capital of the Wielkopolska region (N = 86,352 deceased), were gathered from original Prussian statistical yearbooks (Preussische Statistik). Causes of death were also analyzed (rural areas, N = 449,576 deceased; small towns, N = 238,365 deceased; Poznań, N = 61,512 deceased). Mortality measures such as crude death rate (CDR), infant death rate (IDR), and neonatal and postneonatal death rates were calculated. Life tables were constructed for both stationary and stable population models and measures of the opportunity for natural selection calculated (Crow's index I(m), potential gross reproduction rate R(pot), and biological state index I(bs)). Relative frequencies of leading causes of death were computed. Stratification depending on the place of residence was evident in all mortality measures as well as in the values of the life tables and the measures of the opportunity for natural selection, but it was reverse of what is observed today in developed countries. In Poznań (a large industrial city), the mortality situation was the least favorable. It was caused by large population density, lack of water supply and sewage systems (up to 1896), and bad working conditions. The values of CDR ranged between 26.89-31.46, and IDR between 190.6-280.5. Newborn life expectancy (for a stable population model) was 31.6 years, I(m) = 0.79, R(pot) = 0.85, and I(bs) = 0.47. The most common causes of death were tuberculosis, other diseases of the respiratory and circulatory systems, dysentery and diarrhea, and cancer. These diseases were less common in rural areas, so they had the most favorable values of mortality measures (CDR between 22.87-27.32, IDR between 181.8-219.4, life expectancy of newborn e(0) = 42.12, I(m) = 0.55, R(pot) = 0.93, I(bs) = 0.60). Infectious diseases (other than tuberculosis), frailty at birth, and frailty in old age were the most frequent causes of death in rural areas. Small towns (population <20,000) had a mortality intermediate between city and rural areas.     

Effects of testosterone on growth, plumage pigmentation, and mortality in Black-headed Gull chicks

In the Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus, sibling chicks defend small territories against conspecifics with testosterone-dependent aggressive behaviour. The energetic requirements for the performance of this behaviour may trade off against the energetic requirements for growth. There are indications that testosterone suppresses growth in birds and, therefore, regulate this trade-off. In this study, the effect of testosterone on growth and plumage pigmentation of Black-headed Gull chicks was analysed. Young chicks in small groups were treated for ten days with testosterone or sham treated. Testosterone-treated birds showed decreased growth rate (daily increase in body mass, head-bill length and tarsus-length) and a marked decrease in juvenile pigmentation of the plumage (tail-bar, back, and secondary coverts). Field measurements revealed a negative correlation between nest density, which correlates positively with aggressive behaviour of adults, and plumage coloration. Furthermore, these measurements showed an increase in mortality of chicks that had low levels of pigmentation early in life. The data suggest that chicks face a testosterone-regulated trade-off between growth and territory defence.     

The Effect of Habitat Structure and Density of Nests on Territory Size and Territorial Behaviour in the Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus L.)

We studied the effects of vegetation structure and nest density on territory size and aggression in the black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus). Vegetation structure influenced the types of aggressive behaviour, but not territory size. The proportion of overt aggression (attacks, fights) was highest in barren areas or those with short, sparse vegetation, and lowest in plots covered with dense, tall grass. We explain this by decreased visibility of conspecifics in habitats isolated by vegetation. In such areas, total aggression did not decrease, because the low proportion of attacks and fights was offset by an increase of more moderate (“upright”) displays. Only when nest density was high did the vegetation reduce the frequency of agonistic behaviour — but then it comprised almost exclusively attacks and fights. As expected, greater nest density was related to reduced territory size and an increased proportion of overt aggression. A high proportion of attacks and fights occurred in the plot with the lowest nest density, where at the same time there were also numerous first-year breeders. We conclude that, when analyzing the effects of habitat conditions on aggressive behaviour, it is important to consider the structure of behaviour, and not only the total frequency of all types of agonistic interactions.     

Different patterns of intestinal helminth infection among young workers in urban and rural areas of Alexandria Governorate, Egypt.

The process of urbanisation taking place in most developing countries is creating favourable conditions for an increase in prevalence of infections, especially with intestinal parasites, in the marginal areas of the towns. The present study was implemented in 1996 to assess the varying prevalence and intensity of infection among young workers in urban and rural areas of the same Governorate (Alexandria, Egypt). The sample comprised 408 male subjects, 8 to 19 years of age, in various occupations: 308 from urban areas, 67 from an industrialised village close to the desert, and 33 from a rural village. A quantitative diagnosis of intestinal helminth infections was made using the Kato-Katz technique, with a double reading of each slide. The results showed a higher prevalence (> 50%) and intensity of infection (indirectly measured as number of eggs per gram of faeces) than in previous studies. Furthermore, a higher prevalence and intensity of infection with Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura was detected in urban districts, as compared to rural areas. This difference was statistically significant. High crowding index, latrine shared with other families and no piped water inside the household, were more common in urban areas as compared with rural settlements and also associated with a higher intensity of infection by soil-transmitted helminths. The trend toward urbanisation seems to have caused deterioration of living conditions and sanitation standards in some areas of Alexandria city, with the most vulnerable people experiencing an increase in intestinal parasitic infections.     

Bat community structure in an urban park

In summer 1990, we mist-netted bats on 35 net-nights, for 4 h each night, along tributaries of the River Rouge in surburban Detroit, Michigan, USA The floodplains of these nvers are preserved as parkland We compared elements of bat community structure in these urbanized park areas to that of rural areas For the rural data set, we used mist-netting data obtained previously on 53 net-nights in southern Michigan using a similar protocol Mean number of bats captured per night was lower in urban compared to rural areas (13 vs 46) Species diversity (Simpson Index) was lower in the city (0.53 vs 0.28) as was species evenness (0.66 vs 0.36) The big brown bat Eptesicus fuscus made up 65% of the catch m rural areas but 83% in the city The red bat Lasirus borealis represented 18% of all bats m rural areas and 13% in the city The proportion of sites where the big brown bat was captured was significantly lower in the city (51% vs 74%) The proportion of sites that yielded red bats also declined, from 52% along rural nvers to only 14% in the city Sex ratio of adult big brown bats did not differ between urban (43% male) and rural (32% male) sites The ratio of juvenile big brown bats to adult females was significantly lower in the city (1.21 vs 30.77) Our data suggest that urbanization is a threat to insectivorous bat communities and leads to decreased overall abundance, decreased species diversity, and possibly lower reproductive success of those that are present     

Heavy metal concentrations in kidneys of urban gray squirrels

Concentrations of lead and zinc in the kidneys of 180 urban gray squirrels were determined by spectrophotometry and found similar for all age groups; however, concentrations of cadmium increased up to two years of age. Values for 12 rural squirrels were significantly lower than those of the urban animals. There were no differences in mean concentrations of the metals when urban squirrels were grouped by the land usage pattern of the sites in which they were captured. Grouping squirrels by human socioeconomic strata for the city revealed that squirrels in low socioeconomic areas have significantly higher levels of lead than animals residing in middle or high socioeconomic areas.     

Immunization interview survey in the Mongolian People's Republic.

An immunization interview survey was carried out in the urban and rural areas of Mongolia. The population sample interrogated comprised 1359 households with 6994 household members, 3634 of them younger than 15 years. The data collection unit was a private household, where information on administrative, demographic and socio-economic items was obtained in addition to detailed information on vaccination histories. A fair number of individuals with a positive history was found among children aged 1 to 5 years; the highest rates were determined among preschool and school-children aged 5 to 9. Significant differences in vaccination rates were found between urban and rural dwellers, urban areas displaying a higher proportion of vaccinated children in the younger age groups and rural areas among school-age children. A significantly higher proportion of vaccinated individuals was found among children living in somons than those living in aimac centres. No significant differences were found between children attending child collective institutions and those educated solely at home. The immunization interview survey was specially directed toward obtaining an estimate of the vaccinated population segment with reference to age in demarcated areas and thus detecting "weak spots" requiring remedial action.     

Job Preferences of Nurses and Midwives for Taking Up a Rural Job in Peru: A Discrete Choice Experiment

Background

Robust evidence on interventions to improve the shortage of health workers in rural areas is needed. We assessed stated factors that would attract short-term contract nurses and midwives to work in a rural area of Peru.

Methods and Findings

A discrete choice experiment (DCE) was conducted to evaluate the job preferences of nurses and midwives currently working on a short-term contract in the public sector in Ayacucho, Peru. Job attributes, and their levels, were based on literature review, qualitative interviews and focus groups of local health personnel and policy makers. A labelled design with two choices, rural community or Ayacucho city, was used. Job attributes were tailored to these settings. Multiple conditional logistic regressions were used to assess the determinants of job preferences. Then we used the best-fitting estimated model to predict the impact of potential policy incentives on the probability of choosing a rural job or a job in Ayacucho city. We studied 205 nurses and midwives. The odds of choosing an urban post was 14.74 times than that of choosing a rural one. Salary increase, health center-type of facility and scholarship for specialization were preferred attributes for choosing a rural job. Increased number of years before securing a permanent contract acted as a disincentive for both rural and urban jobs. Policy simulations showed that the most effective attraction package to uptake a rural job included a 75% increase in salary plus scholarship for a specialization, which would increase the proportion of health workers taking a rural job from 36.4% up to 60%.

Conclusions

Urban jobs were more strongly preferred than rural ones. However, combined financial and non-financial incentives could almost double rural job uptake by nurses and midwifes. These packages may provide meaningful attraction strategies to rural areas and should be considered by policy makers for implementation.     

Age-related and regional changes in angiotensin-converting and kinin-degrading activity in the brain of aggressive rats

Aggressive behaviour (muricidal) induced in rats by local electrolyte lesions of septal brain area was accompanied by changes in angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) and total kinin-destroying activity (KDA) in different brain regions. In 2-month-old rats (30 days after septal operation) a decrease in ACE activity was observed in hypothalamus and striatum, while in the cerebellum the activity was increased. KDA in this group of aggressive rats was markedly increased in the pituitary body, hypothalamus and striatum. Half a year after septal lesion in spite of aggressive behaviour retention, ACE activity and KDA did not differ from their activity in nonmuricidal rats of the same age. These data show a distinct role of the peptides studied in the formation and maintenance of muricidal behaviour in rats of different age.     

“三江并流”区游憩文化生态系统服务评价研究

游憩是一项重要的文化生态系统服务类型。以"三江并流"区为研究区,选择景观多样性、自然度、河流湖泊元素、景点等级、可达性和服务设施等6项指标,从游憩潜力和游憩机会两方面进行评估,得到该地区现有和潜在的游憩文化生态系统服务量,并划分为5个等级。结果表明:游憩潜力与机会共同影响游憩服务量,"三江并流"区游憩潜力与机会在空间分布上并不匹配,游憩潜力较高的地区占17.09%,主要分布于怒江州、大理州、德钦县、丽江古城区及玉龙县的部分区域;10.06%的地区游憩机会极低,主要包括贡山县、德钦县以及香格里拉北部地区;具有高等级潜在游憩服务量的地区,集中分布于大理州、丽江古城区、玉龙县和香格里拉的部分地区,占研究总面积的17.64%。具有较高游憩潜力的景点,大多数现有服务量也比较高。服务量为4级以上的景点数量占44.68%,集中分布在大理州、玉龙县、香格里拉、德钦等地,与高等级潜在游憩服务量的地理分布十分相似,说明现有游憩服务的开发在一定程度上符合自然规律。