Diet composition of the African manatee: Spatial and temporal variation within the Sanaga River Watershed,Cameroon

The present study aimed to investigate the diet of African manatees in Cameroon to better inform conservation decisions within protected areas. A large knowledge gap on diet and seasonal changes in forage availability limits the ability to develop informed local management plans for the African manatee in much of its range. This research took place in the Sanaga River Watershed, which includes two protected areas in the Littoral Region of Cameroon: the Douala‐Edea National Park and the Lake Ossa Wildlife Reserve. We analyzed 113 manatee fecal samples and surveyed shoreline emergent and submerged vegetation within the Sanaga River Watershed. We used microhistological analyses to determine the relative contribution of each plant species to African manatee diets and compared across locations and across seasons (wet vs. dry season). We found that the shoreline vegetation is diverse with over 160 plant species, unevenly distributed across space and season, and dominated by emergent vegetation mostly represented by the antelope grass (Echinochloa pyramidalis). We recorded a total of 36 plant species from fecal samples with a spatial and temporal distribution mostly reflecting that of the corresponding shoreline vegetation. African manatees appear to be primarily opportunistically feeding on available vegetation across the seasons and habitat. This work documents the current, but changing, state of plant availability in the Sanaga River Watershed and reports the African manatee diet in Cameroon for the first time. This information can play a critical role in successfully managing the species and these protected areas. If we wish to protect the African manatee and the aquatic ecosystems within the Sanaga River Watershed, we must understand how forage availability changes over time, especially as its waters become nutrient enriched, eutrophic, and exposed to invasive species of plants in a changing world.     

Vegetational patterns and distribution of relict taxa in humid temperate forests and wetlands of Georgia (Transcaucasia)

Small-scale vegetational patterns of Georgian lowland and montane forests and wetlands are documented by species per vegetation unit, function of species in particular vegetation units and vegetational sketches. The humid warm-temperate climate of western Georgia contributes to a different spatial pattern than known for most of Europe. One characteristic feature of western Georgian relict vegetation is the co-occurrence of 'Mediterranean', 'Sub-mediterranean', temperate, and Tertiary relict species, as well as of species normally confined to either zonal or azonal vegetation, in the same or closely related vegetation units. The extant distribution of Tertiary relict taxa strongly depends on how they are niching into changing environments. Niching strategies are assumed crucial for extinction or survival in times of rapid climatic/environmental changes. For Tertiary relict plant taxa in western Georgia we found four different niching strategies which also hold true of other northern hemispheric Tertiary relict plant taxa. Some amphibians and reptiles display similar distribution patterns and niching strategies as do relict plant taxa. A number of relict taxa in the warm humid regions of western Georgia occupy niches in swamp forests which might represent 'primeval' environments of species which are at present also elements of meso-Mediterranean vegetation and of thermophilous forest edges and hedges in Central Europe.     

Diversity and distribution of ground-dwelling ants in a lowland rainforest in southeast Cameroon

Detailed information on the ground-dwelling ant diversity and distribution in the rainforests of the Congo Basin is lacking so far. A new ant species list from a continuous mixed secondary lowland rainforest on the northern periphery of the Dja Biosphere Reserve in southeast Cameroon is presented. We investigated the effect of vegetation type on ant species density, activity and composition. Ants were collected by pitfall trapping in seven vegetation types in each of three seasons during 12 months in 2003 and 2004–2005. Our site in Cameroon had a total observed ant diversity of 145 species. Vegetation type significantly influenced the ground-dwelling and -foraging (arboreal) ant assemblages. Differences in species density, activity and composition between vegetation types were explained not only by soil type (hydromorphous – terra firme), but also by developmental stage of vegetation types. The highly inundated Raphia-swamp had the lowest ant species density and activity. Older secondary forests still had a different species composition than near primary forest even after 25 years of recovery after anthropogenic disturbance. Finally, the high ant species number captured by our pitfalls, the absence of the invasive exotic ant Wasmannia auropunctata and the high Dorylus (Anomma) army ant diversity confirm the importance of the Cameroonian rainforest for biodiversity conservation programs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Received 4 October 2006; revised 4 June 2007; accepted 2 July 2007.     

Diversity and community structure of bats (Chiroptera) in the Centre Region of Cameroon

In this survey, we investigated the diversity and community structure of bats in the Centre Region of Cameroon with respect to their distribution in the different vegetation zones of the region. We mist-netted bats monthly from January 2016 to June 2017 for five nonconsecutive nights per month. Thirty-nine sites were surveyed: 24 in traditional farms, nine in the savannah and six in the forests. A total of 668 bats were captured during 81 nights of capture, covering seven families, 21 genera and 36 species. This included 26 species in traditional farms, 13 species in savannah and 11 species in the forest. Micropteropus pusillus was the most abundant species (30.7%) recorded, followed by Hipposideros ruber (24.9%). The sample efficiency was estimated at 72.1% with fitted species accumulation curves not reaching asymptotes for the three habitat types, suggesting that the survey did not record all the bats present. There was an indication of general increased in abundance of bats during the dry and rainy seasons but it is not significant (Mann–Whitney U: 783.5, p = .195). The rarity index was highest in traditional farms (0.44), followed by savannah (0.38) and then forest (0.33). This preliminary survey provides baseline data on the distribution of bats in the different vegetation types in the Centre Region of Cameroon.     

Tertiary leaves of the tribe Banksieae (Proteaceae) from south-eastern Australia

Leaves from the tribe Banksieae of the Proteaceae are well represented in Tertiary deposits in south-eastern Australia. Four new species of Banksieaephyllum are erected, taking the total to 11, and two species are described in a new genus, with leaves with architectural similarities to the tribe Banksieae but without organic preservation. The fossil species demonstrate that the tribe was diverse by the end of the Eocene, but it is difficult to determine the ancestral type from the fossil evidence at present. The vegetation associated with some of the fossil species suggests that the tribe may have had its origins in rainforest, and became adapted to the typically dry, nutrient-poor conditions of sclerophyllous vegetation during the course of the Tertiary.     

Mexical plant phenology: is it similar to Mediterranean communities?

The sclerophyllous, evergreen vegetation found in Mexico under tropical climate is named 'Mexical' (MEX) and presents many traits that have been thought to converge under a Mediterranean climate. Flowering phenology is strongly similar across Mediterranean-type ecosystems (MTEs) and this paper investigates MEX plant phenology in this context. The common history of the vegetation and the differences in the climatic conditions experienced by MEX and MTE taxa provide an ideal scenario to infer the relative importance of natural selection and historical constraints in the phenological response of plants to climatic conditions. This study has involved collecting field and bibliographic data on flowering phenology of MEX communities to detect (1) similarities at the community level between MTEs and MEX, (2) similarities between Tertiary and Quaternary taxa in MTEs and MEX, and (3) similarities between congeneric taxa from MEX and MTEs (taxa sharing a common ancestor but having evolved under different climates). Flowering in MEX does not occur mainly in spring, as in MTEs, but in summer, suggesting a response that maximizes water use in the rainy season. Flowering phenology of MEX species differed from their MTE congeneric species, suggesting that even though a common ancestor is shared, environmental pressures have led to different phenological responses in MEX and MTE plants. The flowering season for species that originated in the Tertiary and Quaternary did not differ in MEX, as expected, because of climatic uniformity along the whole time line. In MTEs, flowering differences between Tertiary and Quaternary species were not congruent, suggesting that the balance between the historical constraints and the selective force of the Mediterranean climate is different among the three MTEs, and a particular explanation is needed for each. © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 138 , 297–303.     

Congruent phylogeographical patterns of eight tree species in Atlantic Central Africa provide insights into the past dynamics of forest cover

Cycles of Quaternary climatic change are assumed to be major drivers of African rainforest dynamics and evolution. However, most hypotheses on past vegetation dynamics relied on palaeobotanical records, an approach lacking spatial resolution, and on current patterns of species diversity and endemism, an approach confounding history and environmental determinism. In this context, a comparative phylogeographical study of rainforest species represents a complementary approach because Pleistocene climatic fluctuations may have left interpretable signatures in the patterns of genetic diversity within species. Using 1274 plastid DNA sequences from eight tree species (Afrostyrax kamerunensis, A. lepidophyllus, Erythrophleum suaveolens, Greenwayodendron suaveolens, Milicia excelsa, Santiria trimera, Scorodophloeus zenkeri and Symphonia globulifera) sampled in 50 populations of Atlantic Central Africa (ACA), we averaged divergence across species to produce the first map of the region synthesizing genetic distinctiveness and standardized divergence within and among localities. Significant congruence in divergence was detected mostly among five of the eight species and was stronger in the northern ACA. This pattern is compatible with a scenario of past forest fragmentation and recolonization whereby forests from eastern Cameroon and northeastern Gabon would have been more affected by past climatic change than those of western Cameroon (where one or more refugia would have occurred). By contrast, southern ACA (Gabon) displayed low congruence among species that may reflect less drastic past forest fragmentation or a more complex history of vegetation changes. Finally, we also highlight the potential impact of current environmental barriers on spatial genetic structures.     

Development of an herbaceous cover in a Sudano-Sahelian savanna in North Cameroon in relation to available soil water

Dynamics of annual communities are studied in Sudano-Sahelian savannas of the north of the Cameroon. The vegetation composition of three types of soil (a vertisol, a degraded vertisol and a ferruginous soil) under two rainfall conditions is compared. The study supports the idea that intense fluctuations in water availability at the beginning of the rainy season determine which species germinate, grow and survive under conditions of water stress. However soil conditions can accentuate or reduce the influence of the rainfall fluctuations while the land use history of each station tends to buffer the variations of the overall pattern determining potential vegetation.     

Plant biodiversity and vegetation structure in traditional cocoa forest gardens in southern Cameroon under different management

Floristic surveys were performed in 17 traditional cocoa forest gardens under different management regimes in the humid forest area of southern Cameroon, to assess the impact of intensification on plant biodiversity. This impact was evaluated by analyzing species richness, vegetation structure, carbon sequestration and above ground biomass. We hypothesize that: (a) plant (tree and herbs) species richness is negatively correlated to management intensity and (b) vegetational density predictably change with management intensity. Our results show that management as practiced in traditional cocoa forest gardens in southern Cameroon following a gradient of intensification from extensive cocoa forest gardens with high floristic diversity to intensive ones strongly impacts plant diversity, plant biomass and to some extend carbon storage with possible negative consequences on biodiversity. Great differences in species richness, species composition, and, for trees, diameter at breast height and basal area were evident among the five types of traditional cocoa forest garden systems investigated. In terms of plant species richness, we found a decreasing gradient of plant species numbers from extensive forest gardens to intensive ones. This study also highlights the importance of the Management Index for quantifying differences in the management; this index could be used to standardize certification procedures and assess conservation progress and success. Our findings support the idea that traditional cocoa forest gardens can help to protect many forest species, sustains smallholder production and offer more scope for conservation of biodiversity, at both species-level and landscape-level. Moreover, diverse traditional cocoa forest gardens may help in regulating pests and diseases and allow for efficient adaptation to changing socioeconomic conditions.     

The blackflies (Diptera: Simuliidae) of Bioko (Republic of Equatorial Guinea) and the Gulf of Guinea with a description of the larvae of the 'Pomeroy' form of Simulium cervicornutum

Abstract.  Like many other organisms, Simuliidae often show a high degree of endemism on oceanic islands, and the Gulf of Guinea, including its islands, is a region of general biogeographical interest in view of the uniqueness of its flora and fauna. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the Simuliidae in the region, and is the first faunistic record of blackflies from Bioko. Simuliidae (larvae, pupae and neonate adults) were collected from Bioko and from around Mount Cameroon and compared with previous findings from Mount Cameroon, Príncipe and São Tomé. Twenty-seven species are known from the region. Twenty-five species have been recorded around Mount Cameroon, eight species on Bioko, three species on São Tomé and one species on Príncipe. Two taxonomic 'forms' (one on Bioko alone, and one on both Bioko and around Mount Cameroon) and one species (found only on São Tomé) are endemic to the region. A study of the variation in the morphology of Simulium cervicornutum revealed two morphotypes, one from Bioko and around Mount Cameroon and the other from the rest of Africa. The speciation and biogeography of the Simuliidae in the Gulf of Guinea are discussed.     

Fire and resprouting in Mediterranean ecosystems: insights from an external biogeographical region, the mexical shrubland

We investigated modes of regeneration of dominant species of the mexical vegetation after fire. The mexical shrubland shows a remarkable structural, morphological, and floristic similarity to Mediterranean-type vegetation and is considered a relict of the Madro-Tertiary Geoflora under a non-Mediterranean climate. This vegetation provides an ideal scenario to test the role of fire in Mediterranean ecosystems because historical fire occurrence is absent and the species assembly is constituted mostly by Madro-Tertiary elements and Neotropical species (some of them, endemic species from Mexico). The existence of congeneric species of the California chaparral allows us to determine the regeneration ability of these communities after fire in relation to resprouting and seeding strategies, which are widespread modes reported in the Mediterranean-type vegetation. By the experimental application of fire in the two biogeographical groups of species, we tested the hypothesis that low resprouting ability of California congeneric species (Madro-Tertiary species) after fire would indicate that fire has played an important selective force in the resprouting habit. A low resprouting ability in the Neotropical group of species would suggest that fire has molded the set of species dominating fire-prone environments.Our results indicated that resprouting is a widespread trait in the mexical species characterized by the presence of lignotubers and burls. Resprouting can be considered an ancient trait, probably linked to losses of aboveground biomass, that became a pre-adaptation in Mediterranean fire-prone communities. The Neotropical group of species showed less ability to regenerate after fire, and small plants were more likely to die after disturbance in this group than in the Madro-Tertiary group. The resprouting feature and the seeder strategy of other species after a fire in the mexical shrubland are similar to Mediterranean-type ecosystems, emphasizing their common origin and the relevance of phylogenetic and biogeographical studies to explain current patterns of vegetation.     

'Convergent' traits of mediterranean woody plants belong to pre-mediterranean lineages

The evergreen-sclerophyllous vegetation associated to the mediterranean-type ecosystems shares common characteristics that have been explained invoking an evolutionary convergence driven by the mediterranean climate. Mediterranean climate originated in the Quaternary but the plant 'convergent' characteristics are also present in tropical-like lineages that evolved along the Tertiary, before the mediterranean climate appeared. Because evergreen-sclerophyllous vegetation was broadly distributed across the world in the Tertiary, current trait similarities among the mediterranean taxa may be due to historical and phylogenetical constraints and not to evolutionary convergence. We tested historical and phylogenetical vs. convergence hypotheses to explain present ecological attributes found in woody plant species in mediterranean areas. Multivariate analyses were performed on the matrix of genera × life-history reproductive characteristics in three mediterranean-type ecosystems and a tropical system as an outgroup, the Mexical shrubland. These analyses indicate that character syndromes in mediterranean plants may largely be explained in relation to the age of the lineage (Tertiary vs. Quaternary). We also found that the similarities shown among mediterranean vegetations are due to Tertiary (pre-mediterranean-) and not to Quaternary (true mediterranean-) taxa. Furthermore, the similarities among mediterranean taxa are due to phylogenetical inertia because similarities in the character syndromes disappear when common genera are excluded from the analysis. © 2003 The Linnean Society of London , Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 78, 415–427.     

About some aporrhaid and strombid gastropods from the Late Cretaceous

Sixteen species of the Stromboidea (Gastropoda) from the Late Cretaceous are described in this study. One species belongs to the Strombidae, the others to eight genera and subgenera of the Aporrhaidae. Eight species are new. They have been found in the Cenomanian of Kassenberg in western Germany, the Coniacian of the Mungo River in Cameroon, the Santonian of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa, the Santonian/Campanian of the Ariyalur area in southern India, the Campanian of northern Spain, and the Maastrichtian of the Western Desert in Egypt. Two species ofDrepanocheilus from South Africa are considered stem-group representatives of the aporrhaids which inhabited the Weddellian Province in the early Tertiary. One new species of the strombid genusHippocrenes is regarded as an early species of the evolutionary lineage leading to the Seraphsidae. The new species areLatiala? ponsi, Drepanocheilus herberti, Drepanocheilus triliratus, Drepanocheilus (Tulochilus) jouberti, Graciliala quaasi, Kaunhowenia catalanica, Kaunhowenia punctata andHippocrenes kussi.     

On the altitudinal limits of birds on BasilC Peak (Bioko Island; Equatorial Guinea)

Pérez del Val, J. 2000. On the altitudinal limits of birds on Basile Peak (Bioko Island; Equatorial Guinea). Ostrich 71(1 & 2): 342.

The lower altitudinal limit of the montane avifauna in Africa has generally been set at 1 500- 800 m, corresponding to vegetation belts of the main mountain ranges of East Africa. However, much lower limits have been reported from the East Usambaras (Tanzania), Mount Cameroon, and Bioko Island. Basilé Peak is a volcano of 3 011 m which constitutes the northern half of Bioko Island. Below 400–900 m the forest has been logged and largely replaced by cocoa plantations, but the vegetation is relatively undisturbed at higher altitudes. Annual rainfall ranges between 2 000 mm and 3 500 mm. From January 1990 to July 1992 mist-nets were set at 13 standardised stations on Basilé Peak; 1 427 birds of 71 species were captured. Previous data from non-standardised mist-netting at 6 other localities, together with sight and sound records, published data, and 1 047 skins in the collections of Museo Naçional de Ciençias Naturales (Madrid), Estacion Biologica de Donaiia (Sevilla) and the Natural History Museum (Tring) were also used to compile distribution lists. From published botanical surveys, I recognised four vegetation zones: Lowland Rain Forest up to 800 m; Mountain Rain Forest at 80CL1 800 m; Araliaceus Forest 1 800–2 500 m; and Ericaceus Stands above 2 500 m. An analysis of similarity (using the index of Czechanowski) grouped 68 bird species into altitudinal classes at 200 m intervals. This suggests a division between lowland and montane birds at 800–1 000 m, broadly coinciding with the change between Lowland and Mountain Rain Forest. There does not seem to be a discrete bird community restricted to either of the upper zones (Araliaceus Forest or Ericaeus Stands), with only the Yellow Bishop Euplectes capensis restricted to the upper 500 m of the mountain. Most species which reach the summit are found in all vegetation zones, notably the endemic subspecies of the African Goshawk Accipiter tachiro lopezi. It is suggested that low temperatures, high rainfall, and in particular the seasonal distribution of rainfall, may explain the lower altitudinal limits of the montane avifauna on Bioko and on Mount Cameroon.     

Use of a tool-set by Pan troglodytes troglodytes to obtain termites (Macrotermes) in the periphery of the Dja Biosphere Reserve, southeast Cameroon

At the northern periphery of the Dja Biosphere Reserve (southeastern Cameroon) we recorded a new use of a tool-set by Pan troglodytes troglodytes to prey on Macrotermes muelleri, M. renouxi, M. lilljeborgi, and M. nobilis. We recovered 79 puncturing sticks and 47 fishing probes at 17 termite nests between 2002 and 2005. The mean length of the puncturing sticks (n = 77) and fishing probes (n = 45) was 52 cm and 56 cm, respectively, and the mean diameter was 9 mm and 4.5 mm, respectively. Sixty-eight percent of 138 chimpanzee fecal samples contained major soldiers of four Macrotermes species. The chimpanzees in southeastern Cameroon appeared to be selective in their choice of plant material to make their tools. The tools found at our study site resemble those from other sites in this region. However, in southeastern Cameroon only one tool-set type was found, whereas two tool-set types have been reported in Congo. Our study suggests that, along with the different vegetation types and the availability of plant material around termite nests, the nest and gallery structure and foraging behavior of the different Macrotermes spp. at all Central African sites must be investigated before we can attribute differences in tool-use behavior to culture.     

Pollen-rain-vegetation relationships along a forest-savanna transect in southeastern Cameroon

Modern soil and litter samples from southeastern Cameroon, collected along a continuous forest–savanna transect were analysed for pollen content to define modern pollen–vegetation relationships. The pollen results, completed and compared with botanical inventories, leaf area index and basal area measurements performed in the same area, clearly registered the physiognomy, the main floristic composition and floral richness of the two sampled ecosystems. Distortions were observed between sampled vegetations and their pollen rain, related to important differences in pollen production and dispersal of plant species: this is a general feature in many tropical regions. The pollen data in the area studied reflected well the recent transgression of forest versus savanna. This permitted us to define inside the forest ecosystem more successional vegetation communities than the botanical surveys allowed.     

Comparative avian biodiversity of five mountains in northern Cameroon and Bioko

Larison, B., Smith, T.B., Fotso, R. & McNiven, D. 2000. Comparative avian biodiversity of five mountains in northem Cameroon and Bioko. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2): 269–276.

Endemism among birds is widespread in the montane forests of western Cameroon and the Gulf of Guinea. The region includes some of the rarest and most threatened species in Africa. We conducted avian surveys of four previously unsurveyed montane sites in northern Cameroon, including Mt. Ngang-Ha, Hoséré Vokré, Tchabal Gandaba, and Tchabal Mbabo, as well as the northern slope of Caldera de Luba on the island of Bioko, Equatorial Guinea. We report here on avian species richness and relative abundance, and evaluate the conservation potential of each site based on avifaunal richness. The montane forest on both Tchabal Mbabo and Caldera de Luba is extensive, while on the other mountains, the vegetation is not characteristic of montane forest, and consists primarily of small gallery forests embedded in savanna. Tchabal Mbabo and Caldera de Luba had the greatest species richness and abundance of montane birds, while Tchabal Gandaba had the greatest overall avian species richness and abundance. Few montane species were noted on Mt. Ngang-Ha and Hosere Vokre, and avian abundance was quite low on both mountains. Of the mountains surveyed, Tchabal Mbabo and Caldera de Luba exhibit the greatest potential for conservation based on extent of montane forest, and montane species richness and abundance.     

Elevational gradient and vegetation‐environmental relationships in the central Hyrcanian forests of northern Iran

Tertiary‐relict Hyrcanian (Caspian) forest along the shores of the southern Caspian Sea is a center of biodiversity. Still, there is little information on plant diversity patterns in this area. This study evaluated plant diversity, variation in life forms, and geographical distribution of the zonal vegetation types and their relationships with environmental variables, in the educational and experimental forest of Kheyrudkenar, an important protected area in the central Hyrcanian forest of northern Iran. For this purpose, 226 vegetation plots of 400 m² were laid out along two altitudinal transects from the lowlands (100 m a.s.l.) to the timberline (2000 m a.s.l.). Four vegetation types were identified using modified TWINSPAN, indirect and direct gradient analyses. Species‐related (species diversity indices, life form and phytogeographical elements) and environmental variables (climate, topographic and soil variables) were calculated and subjected to one‐way ANOVA among the vegetation types. Both constrained (CCA) and unconstrained (DCA) ordination analyses showed an almost identical variation of the floristic composition along their axes and demonstrated that there are two main gradients in the Hyrcanian forest. Elevation together with annual precipitation and mean annual temperature were the most important factors controlling the floristic composition in the area. Topographic features such as slope inclination and heat index were found to be important within an elevation zone/vegetation type. Soil physical and chemical properties were of secondary importance for the separation of the vegetation types. This knowledge will be useful for forest management and conservation practices in the Hyrcanian area with its distinct and unique flora and vegetation.     

Comparative avian phylogeography of Cameroon and equatorial Guinea mountains: implications for conservation

We illustrate the use of Faith's 'Phylogenetic Diversity' measure to compare the phylogeographic structure of two bird species with patterns of avian endemism across six mountains in Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea. The Mountain Greenbul and Cameroon Blue-headed Sunbird showed phylogeographic patterns that together defined three biogeographic regions: Bioko, Mt. Cameroon, and the northern mountains of Cameroon. In contrast, the distributions of endemic species were largely a function of geographical distance, with close mountains sharing more endemic species than distant mountains. Moreover, for both species, populations on Mt. Cameroon were distinctive with respect to the ecologically relevant character bill size. Our results, while preliminary, illustrate the utility of a comparative approach for identifying geographical regions that harbour evolutionarily distinct populations and caution against using only the distributional patterns of endemics to prioritize regions for conservation. Results show that patterns of endemism may not be concordant with patterns of phylogenetic diversity nor morphological variation in a character important in fitness. While incorporation of additional species from unrelated taxa will be necessary to draw definitive conclusions about evolutionarily distinct regions, our preliminary results suggest a conservation approach for the Afromontane region of the Gulf of Guinea that would: (i) emphasize protection of both Bioko and Mt. Cameroon, thereby maximizing preservation of within-species phylogenetic and morphologic diversity; (ii) emphasize protection within the northern mountains to further conserve intraspecific phylogenetic diversity and maximize protection of endemic species.