New Sivapithecus postcranial specimens from the Siwaliks of Pakistan

Several new postcranial elements of Sivapithecus from the Siwaliks of Pakistan are described. These include a distal femur from the U-level of the Dhok Pathan Formation, a navicular from the Chinji Formation, and seven manual and pedal phalanges from the Nagri Formation. The functional morphology of these elements adds new detail to the reconstruction ofSivapithecus positional behavior. Femoral cross-sectional geometry indicates that the shaft was adapted to support mediolaterally directed loading. Femoral condylar asymmetry and a broad but shallow trochlea are distinctly ape-like, revealing capabilities for both rotation and withstanding eccentric loading in the knee. The navicular is characterized by features relating to a broad mid-tarsus and broad distal articulations for the cuneiforms. It also lacks a navicular tubercle as in Pongo. These features suggest that the foot was capable of a powerful grip on large supports, with an inversion/supination capability that would permit foot placement in a variety of positions. The morphology of the new phalanges, including evidence for a relatively large pollex, similarly suggests powerful grasping, consistent with prior evidence from the hallux and tarsus. The functional features of the new specimens permit refinement of previous interpretations of Sivapithecus positional capabilities. They suggest a locomotor repertoire dominated by pronograde activities and also such antipronograde activities as vertical climbing and clambering, but not by antipronograde suspensory activities as practiced by extant apes.     

Detection of Rotavirus from Hospitalized Diarrheic Children in Uttar Pradesh, India

In the present study 220 stool samples collected from diarrheic children admitted to different hospitals and nursing homes of Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand were screened for rotavirus. Of 220 diarrheic samples screened 46 samples were found to be positive for rotavirus by RNA PAGE. All the isolates exhibited 4-2-3-2 migration pattern suggesting group A rotavirus. Both long and short electropherotypes were prevalent in these regions. Six different electropherotypes were detected in this study period. Male diarrheic children were found to be more susceptible to rotavirus infection (22.96 %) than that of the female ones (17.64 %). Viral RNA isolated from stool samples again subjected to VP4 gene amplification by RT-PCR using con2 and con3 primer which resulted 876 bp product suggesting group A rotavirus. Besides virus isolation was successfully done using MA104 cell line.     

The effect of a rosette-crown fly, Botanophila turcica, on growth,biomass allocation and reproduction of the thistle Carthamus lanatus

Plant growth and reproductive output of the winter annual invasive thistle, Carthamus lanatus was characterised in relation to plant size in three native populations in southern France. The effects of the rosette-crown feeding fly Botanophila turcica on these plant characteristics were assessed by comparing unattacked with naturally attacked plants at each site and by a field experiment. Indirect effects of B. turcica on plant seed production were also compared with direct seed loss caused by a guild of capitulum-feeding insects that incidentally attacked the marked plants at these sites. C. lanatus showed no size or weight requirement for flowering, but larger flowering plants produced less total receptacle surface and less seed production (female reproductive potential) in proportion to plant weight than smaller flowering plants. B. turcica did not select hosts on the basis of size or density. B. turcica reduced plant relative growth rate (RGR) in all situations, but attacked plants compensated fully at two of three sites as attack failed to halt rosette growth. Attacked plants suffered 12 % mortality, and 71 % lower seed production than unattacked plants at the site with the lowest RGR. This corresponded to 9 % lower seed production for the whole thistle population compared to 8.6–19.5 % direct seed loss to capitulum insects across all sites.     

Purification and properties of Pinus taeda arginase from germinated seedlings

In germinated loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seeds arginine accumulates in the seedling during its growth immediately following germination. The enzyme arginase (L-arginine amidinohydrolase, EC 3.5.3.1) is responsible for hydrolyzing this arginine into ornithine and urea. Loblolly pine arginase was purified to homogeneity from seedling cotyledons by chromatographic separation on DE-52 cellulose, Matrex Green and arginine-linked Sepharose 4B. The enzyme was purified 148-fold and a single polypeptide band was identified as arginase. The molecular mass was determined to be 140 kDa by FPLC, while the subunit size was shown to be 37 kDa by SDS-PAGE, predicting a homotetramer holoprotein. Removal of manganese from the enzyme abolishes catalytic activity, which can be restored by incubating the protein with Mn²⁺. Antibodies, raised against the arginase subunit, are able to immunotitrate arginase activity and are monospecific for arginase on immunoblots.     

Cross-cultural dimensions of breastfeeding practices and abstinence: Evidence from Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu, India

Summary and Conclusion The analysis contained in this paper brings out very clearly that the practice of breastfeeding and abstinence in the two major states of India: Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu are highly related to socio-cultural factors and changes in generational gaps. The findings reveal that literate, non-Hindu, and rich (high SLI) women have shorter breastfeeding durations than illiterates, Hindus, and poor (low SLI) women of Uttar Pradesh and Tamilnadu. In addition, the breastfeeding practice in Uttar Pradesh is influenced by residence background and generational age-gaps. The role of socio-cultural factors in influencing post-partum sexual abstinence period has been found to be significantly important through the variables; residence background, generational age-gaps, religion and working status of women. The results reveal that urban women, of younger cohorts (below 30 years), non-Hindu, and non-working women have shorter abstinence periods compared to rural women, of older cohorts (above 30 years), Hindus, and working women in both the states. The findings from this analysis suggest that apart from modernization process, defined in terms of higher literacy levels, higher developmental and urbanization levels, the changing perceptions and attitude towards lactational practices over the generation has significant dent on shortening of breastfeeding durations and abstinence periods. Thus, the study support the hypothesis that the process of modernization defined in terms of improvement in level of education, family income, urbanization tends to shorten the period of breastfeeding and abstinence, and consequently, the post-partum infecundability is reduced. Such reductions in the infertile periods can be expected to contribute to an increase in natural fertility levels of the population and also on the observed fertility levels, if not counter balanced by the fertility reducing effects of contraception.     

Adaptive and phylogenetic significance of ontogenetic sequences in Archaeolemur, subfossil lemur from Madagascar

Among the best known of recently extinct Malagasy lemurs is Archaeolemur, which is represented by many hundreds of specimens. The phylogenetic affinities of this taxon are unclear, especially in light of recent preliminary analysis of ancient DNA which does not support its previously accepted close relationship with the living Indridae. We examined the nearly complete skeletons of two adults and one juvenile and other less complete specimens to reconstruct aspects of the ontogeny of Archaeolemur. To compare the development of Archaeolemur to that of living strepsirrhines we collected data on Propithecus verreauxi, Eulemur fulvus, and Lemur catta. Additionally, because Archaeolemur exhibits some morphological convergences with distantly related papionins, we tested for convergence in the developmental patterns of Archaeolemur and Macaca fascicularis. Data include the status of tooth eruption, craniofacial sutural closure, and postcranial epiphyseal fusion, as well as linear measurements. We used discriminant function analysis and other tools to explore ontogenetic similarities and differences. The adaptive and phylogenetic significance of ontogenetic information is discussed. Our analysis shows that Archaeolemur displays a clear strepsirrhine pattern of development with only minor macaque convergences. Among the Strepsirrhini, Archaeolemur is slightly more similar developmentally to E. fulvus and L. catta than to P. verreauxi. Some of the distinctive features of the ontogeny of Archaeolemur may be related to diet, while others bear apparent testimony to a relatively rapid absolute pace of growth and development.     

A large male hominin cranium from Sterkfontein, South Africa, and the status ofAustralopithecus africanus

Stw 505 is the most complete hominin cranium discovered in Sterkfontein Member 4 since Broom's excavations. It was found in situ in Member 4 breccia in 1989 and is larger, on the whole, than any other cranium from Sterkfontein that has comparable parts. Displacement due to breakage, as well as plastic deformation, has affected Stw 505 in several areas, especially the face and the vault. Diagnosticmorphology is nevertheless abundant in the specimen. In several areas-the distinct anterior pillar, the straight inferior border of the zygoma, the pattern of cresting on the naso-alveolar clivus, the basal aspect of the temporal bone-Stw 505 closely matches the morphology of specimens of Australopithecus africanus and is distinct from other hominins. Some isolated characters overlap with other groups, mainly early Homo and/or A. robustus. However, only the hypodigm of A. africanus can accommodate the entire suite of morphology.In some cases, Stw 505 introduces more variation into the Sterkfontein sample. For example, prominent superciliary eminences occupy the medial portions of the supraorbital region and flow medially into a strongly protruding glabellar mound. These characteristics are probably attributable to sexual dimorphism. In many respects, Stw 505 highlights similarities between A. africanus and early Homo. Comparison with other species suggests that males of A. africanus do not show derived features of A. robustus that are not also present in females, and that cranial differences between A. afarensis and A. africanus have, if anything, been understated.     

Ion channels of intact young root hairs from Medicago sativa

Root hairs are a primary site for nutrient absorption and for initiation of signalling processes linked to variations of the root environment:plant-microbe interactions or abiotic changes. In many of these cases, the earliest detectable response is the modification of plasma membrane transports, detected through alteration of the electrical membrane potential. In spite of this, root hairs have not been extensively used in electrophysiological research so far. Problems with cell shape and current coupling are often prohibitive for microelectrode voltage-clamp on intact root hairs. In the present study, these difficulties have been overcome and the ion channel currents are described for young root hairs from alfalfa seedlings (Medicago sativa cv Sitel). Electrophysiological and pharmacological studies indicated an inward rectifying K⁺ time-dependent current. This current was sensitive to tetraethylammonium and Cs⁺ (10 mM each). Two other currents never shown in root hairs were described: an outward rectifying time-dependent K⁺ current, inhibited by tetraethylammonium and Cs⁺ (10 mM each) allowing K⁺ efflux under strong depolarizations and an instantaneous inward current identified as an anion current, inhibited by 4-acetamido-4'-isothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid and anthracene-9-carboxylic acid (100 μM each). These results should contribute to the understanding of root hair development and of signalling processes in M. sativa root hairs.     

Degradation and Utilization of Xylans by the Rumen AnaerobePrevotella bryantii(formerlyP. ruminicolasubsp.brevis) B14

Freshly harvested whole cells from cultures ofP. bryantiiB₁4 grown with oat spelt xylan (OSX) as an energy source showed less than 25% of the enzyme activity against OSX, and less than 15% of the activity against birchwood xylan (BWX) and carboxymethylcellulose, that was detectable in sonicated cell preparations. This indicates that much of this hydrolytic activity is either periplasmic, membrane-associated or intracellular and may be concerned with the processing of transported oligosaccharides.P. bryantiiB₁4 cultures were able to utilise up to 45% and 51% of the total pentose present in OSX and BWX, respectively, after 24 h, but could utilize 84% of a water-soluble fraction of BWX. Analysis of the xylan left undegraded after incubation withP. bryantiishowed that while xylose and arabinose were removed to a similar extent, uronic acids were utilized to a greater extent than xylose. Predigestion of xylans with two cloned xylanases from the cellulolytic rumen anaerobeRuminococcus flavefaciensgave little increase in overall pentose utilization suggesting that externalP. bryantiixylanases are as effective as the clonedR. flavefaciensenzymes in releasing products that can be utilised byP. bryantiicells. The xylanase system ofP. bryantiiis able to efficiently utilise not only xylo-oligosaccharides but also larger water-soluble xylan fragments.     

Frequency and effort of reproduction in female Vipera aspis from a southern population

The frequency of reproduction of the asp viper (Vipera aspis, Viperidae) was studied in a population living along the coasts of central Italy. An annual reproductive cycle seemed to be the rule during the 5-year study period. Annual reproduction, high average mass of reproductive females, and large size of neonates, compared with other northern or continental populations, are presumably due to the particularly suitable climatic conditions of the area, as in most coastal habitats of the Mediterranean region. Such a scenario should influence the extent of the feeding period, which allows females, within a few months after parturition, to regain their previous body condition and reproduce again the following year.     

Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance and tolerance in Streptococcus pneumoniae

Streptococcus pneumoniae is a major pathogen causing potentially life-threatening community-acquired diseases in both the developed and developing world. Since 1967, there has been a dramatic increase in the incidence of penicillin-resistant and multiply antibiotic-resistant pneumococci worldwide. Prevention of access of the antibiotic to the target, inactivation of the antibiotic and alteration of the target are mechanisms that S. pneumoniae has developed to resist antibiotics. Recent studies on antibiotic-tolerant pneumococcal mutants permitted development of a novel model for the control of bacterial cell death.     

The effects ofPerkinsus marinusextracellular products and purified proteases on oyster defence parametersin vitro

The effects of extracellular products (ECP) and purified proteases from the protozoan parasitePerkinsus marinuson three host defence parameters (haemocyte motility, lysozyme and haemagglutinin) of the eastern oyster,Crassostrea virginica, were investigated. ECP with high proteolytic activities, as well as purified proteases, significantly decreased the random migration of haemocytes through micro-porous filters in Boyden chambers. Stimulation of haemocyte migration byP. marinuscells orP. marinuscell lysate was also dramatically reduced by ECP and purified proteases. Incubation of oyster plasma with ECP and purified proteases caused a significant decrease in lysozyme activity and also appeared to reduce haemagglutinin titres. These data suggest thatP. marinusECP, as well as the proteolytic fraction of the ECP, can modulate some defence parameters of oystersin vitro.     

2-Hydroxyacid dehydrogenase from Haloferax mediterranei, a D-isomer-specific member of the 2-hydroxyacid dehydrogenase family

An NAD-dependent D-2-hydroxyacid dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.) was isolated and characterized from the halophilic Archaeon Haloferax mediterranei. The enzyme is a dimer with a molecular mass of 101.4 ± 3.3 kDa. It is strictly NAD-dependent and exhibits its highest activity in 4 M NaCl. The enzyme is characterized by a broad substrate specificity 2-ketoisocaproate and 2-ketobutyrate being the substrates with the higher V_max/K_m. When pyruvate and 2-ketobutyrate were the substrates the optimal pH was acidic (pH 5) meanwhile for 2-ketoisocaproate maximum activity was achieved at basic pH between 7.5 and 8.5. The optimum temperature was 52 ºC and at 65 ºC there was a pronounced activity decrease. This new enzyme can be used for the production of D-2-hydroxycarboxylic acid.     

A new skeleton of Theropithecus brumpti (Primates: Cercopithecidae) from Lomekwi, West Turkana, Kenya

A relatively complete skeleton of the fossil papionin, Theropithecus brumpti, from the site of Lomekwi, west of Lake Turkana, Kenya, is here described. The specimen, KNM-WT 39368, was recovered at the site of LO 5 (3°51′N and 35°45′E), from sediments dated to approximately 3·3 Ma. The skeleton is that of an old adult male and preserves a number of articulated elements, including most of the forelimbs and tail. The cranial morphology is that of a large, early T. brumpti, exhibiting a deep mandible with a deeply excavated mandibular corpus fossa, and mandibular alveoli and cheek teeth arrayed in a reversed Curve of Spee. The forelimb skeleton exhibits a unique mixture of characteristics generally associated with a terrestrial locomotor habitus, such as a narrow scapula and a highly stable elbow joint, combined with those more representative of habitual arborealists, such as muscle attachments reflecting a large rotator cuff musculature and a flexible shoulder joint. The forelimb of KNM-WT 39368 also presents several features, unique toTheropithecus , which represent adaptations for manual grasping and fine manipulation. These features include a large, retroflexed medial humeral epicondyle (to which large pronator, and carpal and digital flexor muscles attached) and proportions of the digital rays that denote capabilities for precise opposition between the thumb and index finger. Taken together, these features indicate that one of the earliest recognized representatives of Theropithecus exhibited the food harvesting and processing anatomy that distinguished the genus through time and that contributed to its success throughout the later Pliocene and Pleistocene. Based on the anatomy of KNM-WT 39368 and the known habitat preference of T. brumpti, the species is reconstructed as being a generally terrestrial but highly dexterous, very large-bodied, sexually dimorphic, and possibly folivorous papionin. T. brumpti was adapted for propulsive quadrupedal locomotion over generally even ground, and yet was highly adept at manual foraging. The estimate of 43·8 kg body mass for KNM-WT 39368 renders unlikely the possibility that the species, or at least adult males of the species, were highly arboreal. T. brumpti, as represented by KNM-WT 39368, is seen as a large, colorfully decorated, and basically terrestrial papionin that was restricted to riverine forest habitats in the Lake Turkana Basin from the middle to latest Pliocene.