Facing the Heat: Thermoregulation and Behaviour of Lowland Species of a Cold-Dwelling Butterfly Genus,Erebia

Understanding the potential of animals to immediately respond to changing temperatures is imperative for predicting the effects of climate change on biodiversity. Ectothermic animals, such as insects, use behavioural thermoregulation to keep their body temperature within suitable limits. It may be particularly important at warm margins of species occurrence, where populations are sensitive to increasing air temperatures. In the field, we studied thermal requirements and behavioural thermoregulation in low-altitude populations of the Satyrinae butterflies Erebia aethiops, E. euryale and E. medusa. We compared the relationship of individual body temperature with air and microhabitat temperatures for the low-altitude Erebia species to our data on seven mountain species, including a high-altitude population of E. euryale, studied in the Alps. We found that the grassland butterfly E. medusa was well adapted to the warm lowland climate and it was active under the highest air temperatures and kept the highest body temperature of all species. Contrarily, the woodland species, E. aethiops and a low-altitude population of E. euryale, kept lower body temperatures and did not search for warm microclimates as much as other species. Furthermore, temperature-dependence of daily activities also differed between the three low-altitude and the mountain species. Lastly, the different responses to ambient temperature between the low- and high-altitude populations of E. euryale suggest possible local adaptations to different climates. We highlight the importance of habitat heterogeneity for long-term species survival, because it is expected to buffer climate change consequences by providing a variety of microclimates, which can be actively explored by adults. Alpine species can take advantage of warm microclimates, while low-altitude grassland species may retreat to colder microhabitats to escape heat, if needed. However, we conclude that lowland populations of woodland species may be more severely threatened by climate warming because of the unavailability of relatively colder microclimates.     

Impacts of climate warming and habitat loss on extinctions at species' low-latitude range boundaries

Polewards expansions of species' distributions have been attributed to climate warming, but evidence for climate‐driven local extinctions at warm (low latitude/elevation) boundaries is equivocal. We surveyed the four species of butterflies that reach their southern limits in Britain. We visited 421 sites where the species had been recorded previously to determine whether recent extinctions were primarily due to climate or habitat changes. Coenonympha tullia had become extinct at 52% of study sites and all losses were associated with habitat degradation. Aricia artaxerxes was extinct from 50% of sites, with approximately one‐third to half of extinctions associated with climate‐related factors and the remainder with habitat loss. For Erebia aethiops (extinct from 24% of sites), approximately a quarter of the extinctions were associated with habitat and three‐quarters with climate. For Erebia epiphron, extinctions (37% of sites) were attributed mainly to climate with almost no habitat effects. For the three species affected by climate, range boundaries retracted 70–100 km northwards (A. artaxerxes, E. aethiops) and 130–150 m uphill (E. epiphron) in the sample of sites analysed. These shifts are consistent with estimated latitudinal and elevational temperature shifts of 88 km northwards and 98 m uphill over the 19‐year study period. These results suggest that the southern/warm range margins of some species are as sensitive to climate change as are northern/cool margins. Our data indicate that climate warming has been of comparable importance to habitat loss in driving local extinctions of northern species over the past few decades; future climate warming is likely to jeopardize the long‐term survival of many northern and mountain species.     

Adaptive plasticity in wing melanisation of a montane butterfly across a Himalayan elevational gradient

1. Traits that are significant to the thermal ecology of temperate or montane species are expected to prominently co-vary with the thermal environment experienced by an organism. The Himalayan Pieris canidia butterfly exhibits considerable variation in wing melanisation. We investigated: (i) whether variation in wing melanisation and (ii) activity period of this montane butterfly was influenced by the seasonally and elevationally changing thermal landscape.
2. We discovered that wing melanisation varied across elevation, seasons, sex, and wing surfaces, with the variation strongly structured in space and time: colder seasons and higher elevations produced more melanic individuals. Notably, melanisation did not vary uniformly across all wing surfaces: (i) melanisation of the ventral hindwing co-varied much more prominently with elevation, but (ii) melanisation on all other surfaces varied with seasonal changes in the thermal environment.
3. Observed wing surface-specific patterns indicated thermoregulatory function for this variation in melanisation. Such wing surface-specific responses to seasonal and elevational variation in temperature have rarely been reported in montane insects.
4. Moreover, daily and seasonal thermal cycles were found to strongly influence activity periods of this species, suggesting the potential limits to wing melanisation plasticity.
5. Overall, these results showed that the seasonal and elevational gradients in temperature influence the thermal phenotype as well as activity periods of this Himalayan butterfly. It will be critical to study the phenotypic evolution of such montane insects in response to the ongoing climate change, which is already showing significant signs in this iconic mountain range.

     

Molecules and models indicate diverging evolutionary effects from parallel altitudinal range shifts in two mountain Ringlet butterflies

Quaternary climatic oscillations caused severe range expansions and retractions of European biota. During the cold phases, most species shifted to lower latitudes and altitudes, and expanded their distribution range northwards and to higher elevations during the warmer interglacial phases. These range shifts produced contrasting distribution dynamics, forming geographically restricted distribution patterns but also panmictic distributions, strongly dependent on the ecologic demands of the species. The two closely related butterfly species Erebia ottomana Herrich‐Schäffer, 1847 and Erebia cassioides (Reiner & Hohenwarth, 1792) show subalpine and alpine distribution settings, respectively. Erebia ottomana is found up to the treeline (1400–2400 m a.s.l.), whereas E. cassioides reaches much higher elevations (from about 1800 m a.s.l. in the Retezat Mountains, in Romania, to 2800 m a.s.l.). Thus, both species cover diverging climatic niches, and thus might also have been distributed differently during the cold glacial stages. Individuals of these two species were sampled over the mountain areas of the Balkan Peninsula and genetically analysed using allozyme electrophoresis. Additionally, we performed species distribution models (SDMs) to simulate the distribution patterns of both species in the past (i.e. during the Last Glacial Maximum and the Atlanticum). Our genetic data show contrasting structures, with comparatively low genetic differentiation but high genetic diversity found in E. ottomana, and with stronger genetic differentiation and a lower level of genetic diversity, including many endemic alleles, occurring restricted to single mountain massifs in E. cassioides. The SDMs support a downhill shift during glacial periods, especially for E. ottomana, with possible interconnection among mountain regions. We conclude that during the cold glacial phases, both species are assumed to shift downhill, but persisted at different elevations, with E. ottomana reaching the foothills and spreading over major parts of the Balkan Peninsula. In contrast, E. cassioides (the truly alpine species) survived in the foothills, but did not reach and spread over lowland areas. This more widespread distribution at the Balkan Peninsula of E. ottomana compared with E. cassioides is strongly supported by our distribution models. As a consequence, long‐term geographic restriction to distinct mountain massifs in E. cassioides versus panmixia in E. ottomana produced two contrasting evolutionary scenarios. © 2014 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 112 , 569–583.     

Effects of plant structure on butterfly diversity in Mt. Marsabit Forest – northern Kenya

Butterflies, like most forest dependent animals are good ecological indicators of the health of the forests they dwell. For example, butterfly species richness decreases after a forest disturbance and fragmentation but a few species may subsequently invade the forest fragment and boost the species richness. Studies were conducted to determine the effects of human activity and seasonal changes on butterfly species in the affected new habitats. Results showed that both seasonal and habitat changes significantly affect the butterfly abundance (P = 0.0001). Similarly, there was significant correlation between plant diversity and butterfly diversity in wet season (r = 0.854) and dry season (r = 0.855). The significance of these studies as a useful tool for sustainable forest use and conservation is discussed.     

Topo‐climatic microrefugia explain the persistence of a rare endemic plant in the Alps during the last 21 millennia

Ongoing rapid climate change is predicted to cause local extinction of plant species in mountain regions. However, some plant species could have persisted during Quaternary climate oscillations without shifting their range, despite the limited evidence from fossils. Here, we tested two candidate mechanisms of persistence by comparing the macrorefugia and microrefugia (MR) hypotheses. We used the rare and endemic Saxifraga florulenta as a model taxon and combined ensembles of species distribution models (SDMs) with a high‐resolution paleoclimatic and topographic dataset to reconstruct its potential current and past distribution since the last glacial maximum. To test the macrorefugia hypothesis, we verified whether the species could have persisted in or shifted to geographic areas defined by its realized niche. We then identified potential MR based on climatic and topographic properties of the landscape and applied refined scenarios of MR dynamics and functions over time. Last, we quantified the number of known occurrences that could be explained by either the macrorefugia or MR model. A consensus of two or three SDM techniques predicted absence between 14–10, 3–4 and 1 ka bp , which did not support the macrorefugia model. In contrast, we showed that S. florulenta could have contracted into MR during periods of absence predicted by the SDMs and later re‐colonized suitable areas according to the macrorefugia model. Assuming a limited and realistic seed dispersal distance for our species, we explained a large number of the current occurrences (61–96%). Additionally, we showed that MR could have facilitated range expansions or shifts of S. florulenta. Finally, we found that the most recent and the most stable MR were the ones closest to current occurrences. Hence, we propose a novel paradigm to explain plant persistence by highlighting the importance of supporting functions of MR when forecasting the fate of plant species under climate change.     

Geographical distribution of morphological abnormalities and wing color pattern modifications of the pale grass blue butterfly in northeastern Japan

The pale grass blue butterfly Zizeeria maha has been used as an environmental indicator to evaluate the biological impacts of the Fukushima nuclear accident. A high morphological abnormality rate (AR) of this butterfly was detected in 2011 from radioactively contaminated areas at 37–38°N. However, the geographical AR distribution has not been documented for the entirety of northeastern Japan. Additionally, the geographical distribution of the wing color pattern modification rate (MR) of temperature‐shock type remains undocumented. Here, we collected adult butterflies from many localities in northeastern Japan in 2014 and examined the local AR and MR. Both AR and MR were generally low throughout the 44 local populations surveyed. Latitudinal AR and MR distributions indicated a gap zone at approximately 39°N. The mean AR and the mean MR of the populations south of the gap zone were low (AR = 3.0%, MR = 1.1%), whereas those of the northern populations were relatively high (AR = 10.6%, MR =10.3%). Logistic regression analyses revealed that abnormalities and modifications were associated with temperature‐related variables. We conclude that abnormalities and modifications are generally rare, but that their rates are higher in the northern populations than in the southern ones. These results, along with evidence from other studies, strongly suggest that the high AR detected in 2011 from contaminated areas was induced by anthropogenic radioactive mutagens. This study presents a basic dataset of the current wildlife state of Z. maha in northeastern Japan, which facilitates a future use of this butterfly species as an environmental indicator.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Wolbachia</Emphasis> endosymbiont infection in two Indian butterflies and female-biased sex ratio in the Red Pierrot, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Talicada nyseus</Emphasis>

The maternally inherited obligate bacteria Wolbachia is known to infect various lepidopteran insects. However, so far only a few butterfly species harbouring this bacterium have been thoroughly studied. The current study aims to identify the infection status of these bacteria in some of the commonly found butterfly species in India. A total of nine butterfly species belonging to four different families were screened using PCR with Wolbachia-specific wsp and ftsZ primers. The presence of the Wolbachia super group ‘B’ in the butterflies Red Pierrot, Talicada nyseus (Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) and Blue Mormon, Papilio polymnestor Cramer (Papilionidae), is documented for the first time in India. The study also gives an account on the lifetime fecundity and female-biased sex ratio in T. nyseus, suggesting a putative role for Wolbachia in the observed female-biased sex ratio distortion.     

The impact of habitat fragmentation on trophic interactions of the monophagous butterfly <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polyommatus coridon</Emphasis>

Theory predicts that habitat fragmentation, including reduced area and connectivity of suitable habitat, changes multitrophic interactions. Species at the bottom of trophic cascades (host plants) are expected to be less negatively affected than higher trophic levels, such as herbivores and their parasitoids or predators. Here we test this hypothesis regarding the effects of habitat area and connectivity in a trophic system with three levels: first with the population size of the larval food plant Hippocrepis comosa, next with the population density of the monophagous butterfly species Polyommatus coridon and finally with its larval parasitism rate. Our results show no evidence for negative effects of habitat fragmentation on the food plant or on parasitism rates, but population density of adult P. coridon was reduced with decreasing connectivity. We conclude that the highly specialized butterfly species is more affected by habitat fragmentation than its larval food plant because of its higher trophic position. However, the butterfly host species was also more affected than its parasitoids, presumably because of lower resource specialization of local parasitoids which also frequently occur in alternative hosts. Therefore, conservation efforts should focus first on the most specialized species of interaction networks and second on higher trophic levels.     

Evaluating the impact of non-lethal DNA sampling on two butterflies, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vanessa cardui</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Satyrodes eurydice</Emphasis>

Genetic sampling of endangered species can inform conservation management and potentially aid the long-term survival of a species. However, when dealing with very small populations of rare species, the sacrifice of whole animals may not be desirable or permitted. We set out to develop a demonstrably non-lethal method of obtaining DNA from the federally-endangered Mitchell’s satyr butterfly, Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii. Because of its endangered status we developed our methods on related species. In greenhouse and fields trials, we demonstrate that removal of small amounts of hind wing (2–3 mm²) has no significant impact on the behavior or survival of Vanessa cardui and Satyrodes eurydice. Based on these studies we were successful in obtaining a permit from the US Fish and Wildlife Service to sample DNA from N. m. mitchellii populations. We suggest that our results can be extended to the sampling of other rare butterfly species.     

Foliar oxidases as mediators of the rapidly induced resistance of mountain birch against <Emphasis Type="Italic">Epirrita autumnata</Emphasis>

Induced resistance of the mountain birch against its main defoliator Epirrita autumnata is a well-characterized phenomenon. The causal mechanism for this induced deterioration, however, has not been unequivocally explained, and no individual compound or group of traditional defensive compounds has been shown to explain the phenomenon. Phenolic compounds are the main secondary metabolites in mountain birch leaves, and the biological activity of phenolics usually depends on their oxidation. In this study, we found that the activity of polyphenoloxidases (PPOs), enzymes that oxidize o-diphenols to o-diquinones, was induced in trees with introduced larvae, and bioassays showed that both growth and consumption rates of larvae were reduced in damaged trees. PPO activity was negatively associated with both larval growth and consumption rates in trees with bagged larvae, but not in control trees. Our results suggest that the oxidation of phenolics by PPOs may be a causal explanation for the rapidly induced resistance of mountain birch against E. autumnata. This finding also helps to explain why correlations between insect performance and phenolics (without measuring indices explaining their oxidation) may not produce consistent results.     

Field evidence and model predictions of butterfly-mediated apparent competition between gentian plants and red ants

In recent spatial models describing interactions among a myrmecophilous butterfly Maculinea rebeli, a gentian Gentiana cruciata and two competing species of Myrmica ant, we predicted that apparent competition should exist between gentians (the food of young M. rebeli caterpillars) and Myrmica schencki, which supports M. rebeli in its final instar. Here we extend and quantify model predictions about the nature of this phenomenon, and relate them to ecological theory. We predict that: (i) Within sites supporting the butterfly, fewer M. schencki colonies occur in sub-areas containing gentians than in identical habitat lacking this plant. (ii) Where G. cruciata and M. schencki do co-exist, the ant colonies will be less than half the size of those living > 1.5 m from gentians; (iii) The turnover of M. schencki colonies will be much greater than that of other Myrmica species in nest sites situated within 1.5 m of a gentian. All three predictions were supported in the field on 3–6 sites in two mountain ranges, although the exact strength of the apparent competition differed from some model predictions. Field data were also consistent with predictions about apparent mutualisms between gentians and other ants. We suggest that apparent competition is likely to arise in any system in which a specialist enemy feeds sequentially on two or more species during its life-cycle, as occurs in many true parasite-host interactions. We also predict that more complex patterns involving other Myrmica species and G. cruciata occur in our system, with apparent competition existing between them in some sub-areas of a site being balanced by apparent mutualism between them in other sub-areas.     

Monitoring spatiotemporal variation in abundance and dispersal by a pheromone-kairomone system in the threatened saproxylic beetles <Emphasis Type="Italic">Osmoderma eremita</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Elater ferrugineus</Emphasis>

Pheromone monitoring could provide unique spatial and temporal information about rare and threatened insect species for conservation purposes. Pheromone traps may be especially valuable in detecting fluctuations and declines in vulnerable species, if trap catch can be related to population density. We exploited the pheromone-kairomone system of the hermit beetle Osmoderma eremita and its predator, the red click beetle Elater ferrugineus, to monitor variation in their flight activity during 7 years (2001–2002, 2005–2009). Spatial and temporal flight activity of O. eremita and E. ferrugineus were highly correlated over individual trap replicates and trap days. Yearly flight activities of both species were correlated within two core sites included during all years of the study, and positively affected by temperature both within and between years. Flight activity could not be directly translated to variation in abundance in either species, however. Dispersal rate was likely the main factor explaining flight activity in O. eremita. Normalizing the flight activity of E. ferrugineus against that of O. eremita did not eliminate most of the variability, however, suggesting that flight activity of E. ferrugineus was governed both by dispersal rate and by population density. Higher fluctuations in population density of E. ferrugineus likely render it more vulnerable to local extinction, which may explain the greater rarity of this species. We suggest that preserving large assemblies of suitable hollow trees would be absolutely essential for buffering against stochastic population fluctuations and securing the long-term persistence of E. ferrugineus.     

Isolated Asian steppe element in the Balkans: habitats of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Proterebia afra</Emphasis> (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae: Satyrinae) and associated butterfly communities

A characteristic butterfly of Asian steppes, Proterebia afra (Fabricius 1787), was studied in its two relic areas of occurrence within the Balkans—the Askion Mts (a single mountain massif in NW Greece) and Dalmatia (karstic inland S Croatia)—together with co-occurring butterfly communities during its early spring adult flight period. P. afra adults tolerate harsh continental conditions prevailing at its localities during its flight. Local densities were higher in the Askion Mts (up to 100 individuals per 50 m walk) than in Dalmatia (up to 30 individuals per 50 m). Within both areas of occurrence, it inhabits dry grasslands subject to intermediate grazing pressure that retains enough dry grass litter but still suppresses shrubs and trees. Hotter slopes are preferred in more northerly Dalmatia than in the more southerly Askion Mts. More co-occurring butterfly species and more Mediterranean species were recorded in the Askion Mts (69 vs 63; 23 vs 12), but more butterfly individuals and higher species’ richness per transect were observed in Dalmatia. In ordination analyses, the main gradients organising the grassland butterfly communities distinguished between grassy plains and rocky slopes containing more woody plants. Given the distribution extents, local densities and present land use conditions, the Balkan P. afra is not currently endangered, but this may swiftly change with grazing abandonment, especially in Dalmatia, and some conservation actions should be considered in the near future.     

Molecular and ecological study of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eryngium</Emphasis> species in Syria

Eryngium L. species growing in Syria were characterized using morphological, geographical and molecular analyses (IRAP and RAPD). Eight Eryngium L. species have been determined to exist in Syria. E. glomeratum, E. campestre and E. falcatum were found to grow in the mountain regions. E. creticum and E. desertorum were found to grow in variant environments: mountains, semidesert and saline environments, which indicate their wide range of adaptation and tolerance to abiotic stresses.     

Effect of grazing intensity on the interaction between Shijimiaeoides divinus asonis (Matsumura, 1929) and its attendant ants

This study was carried out in the natural herbaceous grassland of Mt. Aso, which had been almost completely grazed, and which is subjected to routine grassland burning every spring (February or March) to conserve Shijimiaeoides divinus asonis (Matsumura, 1929). We clarify that ants protect the larvae of this butterfly and evaluate the effects of grazing intensity on the attendant ant population. The results obtained are summarized as follows: (i) Five species of attendant ant were identified, with the dominant species being Formica japonica (Motschulsky, 1866) and Camponotus japonicus (Mayr, 1866). (ii) The number of attendant ants decreased at night time; however, only one or two ants attended the larva until the following morning. (iii) Ten species of insect excluding ants and three species of spiders that approached the larva were recorded on the larval host‐plant. Formica japonica and C. japonicus fought off most newcomers of other insects including the natural enemies of these butterfly larvae. (iv) The number of ants in this butterfly habitat under regular grazing intensity was significantly higher than during low grazing intensity and non‐grazing periods. (v) A positive correlation was found between the number of attendant ants and the number of butterfly larvae on the host‐plant. We concluded that the interaction between this butterfly and attendant ants is one of facultative mutualism because the attendant ants protect the butterfly larva. Therefore, the numbers of this butterfly species may decrease if the number of attendant ants decreases due to the cessation of pasturage.     

Host plant preference in the protected myrmecophilous Transylvanian Blue (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudophilotes bavius hungarica</Emphasis>) butterfly (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) and its relationship with potential ant partners

When selecting specific host plants, caterpillars of many lycaenid butterflies, such as the protected Pseudophilotes bavius hungarica, are known to engage in various interactions with ants, which help them survive. Although P. bavius is a protected species, data about its host plant selection is very scarce, and little information is available on its myrmecophilous relationships. Our aim was to identify the host plant characteristics that determine the occurrence of the caterpillar and to clarify the specificity of its myrmecophily. We conducted a series of field surveys regarding host plant characteristics. Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the nature of interactions between the caterpillar and its potential ant partners. Control experiments involving non-visiting ants were also performed. On the basis of our findings, the physical characteristics of host plants do not seem to influence host plant choice, but the absence of aphids and the presence of different ant species proved important. According to the results of behavioural assays, neutral reactions to the caterpillars were recorded in the case of ant species that regularly visited the host plant (Lasius paralienus, Camponotus aethiops), in contrast to Tapinoma subboreale, which was not observed at all on the host plants and which behaved aggressively towards the larvae. Therefore, the caterpillar is expected to show a certain ant host selectivity. The study constitutes an essential contribution to our knowledge of the natural history of a protected butterfly species, which can be used as a basis for more appropriate management strategies, while also shedding light on aspects of myrmecophilous relationships in Lycaenidae in general.     

Chloroplast DNA diversity associated with protected slopes and valleys for hybridizing Eucalyptus species on isolated ranges in south‐eastern Australia

Aim To relate genetic diversity to topographic features and to investigate genetic interactions between Eucalyptus species in a local centre of endemism and diversity in south‐eastern Australia. Location Grampian Ranges, Victoria, Australia. Methods We documented chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation for a group of endemic Eucalyptus species (E. serraensis, E. verrucata and E. victoriana) that dominate rocky, high‐elevation ridgelines of the Grampian Ranges and for one closely‐related, widespread species (E. baxteri) occupying flanking slopes and valleys. We documented genetic patterns across the landscape using cpDNA microsatellites, and related them to topographic features (exposed west‐facing versus protected east‐facing slopes and valleys). We also determined the extent of local haplotype sharing between populations of endemic species and neighbouring E. baxteri downslope with cpDNA microsatellites, and haplotype sharing between the endemic group and more distantly related species (E. obliqua, E. pauciflora and E. willisii) with sequences of the J_LA+ chloroplast region. Results We detected 26 cpDNA microsatellite haplotypes in a relatively small area of c. 20 km × 50 km. Populations of E. baxteri on east‐facing slopes and valleys had greater cpDNA microsatellite diversity than E. baxteri and endemic species on exposed west‐facing slopes. Endemic species frequently shared chloroplast haplotypes with E. baxteri downslope. Sharing of J_LA+ haplotypes with species outside the endemic group was mostly restricted to E. victoriana, which had cpDNA more similar to the species from other sections of Eucalyptus (E. obliqua, E. willisii and E. pauciflora). Main conclusions Intensive sampling of related species on small isolated mountain ranges allowed us to relate genetic diversity to fine‐scale habitats and to document extensive local haplotype sharing between species. This study contributes to a general understanding of the environmental conditions that enable plant population persistence by linking concentrations of genetic diversity to particular habitats.     

Effects of recent and past climatic shifts on the genetic structure of the high mountain Yellow‐spotted ringlet butterfly Erebia manto (Lepidoptera,Satyrinae): a conservation problem

Mountain species have evolved important genetic differentiation due to past climatic fluctuations. The genetic uniqueness of many of these lineages is now at risk due to global warming. Here, we analyse allozyme polymorphisms of 1306 individuals (36 populations) of the mountain butterfly Erebia manto and perform Species Distribution Models (SDMs). As a consensus of analyses, we obtained six most likely genetic clusters: (i) Pyrenees with Massif Central; (ii) Vosges; (iii–v) Alps including the Slovakian Carpathians; (vi) southern Carpathians. The Vosges population showed the strongest genetic split from all other populations, being almost as strong as the split between E. manto and its sister species Erebia eriphyle. The distinctiveness of the Pyrenees‐Massif Central group and of the southern Carpathians group from all other groups is also quite high. All three groups are assumed to have survived more than one full glacial–interglacial cycle close to their current distributions with up‐hill and down‐slope shifts conforming climatic conditions. In contrast with these well‐differentiated groups, the three groups present in the Alps and the Slovakian Carpathians show a much shallower genetic structure and thus also should be of a more recent origin. As predicted by our SDM projections, rising temperatures will strongly impact the distribution of E. manto. While the populations in the Alps are predicted to shrink, the survival of the three lineages present here should not be at risk. The situation of the three other lineages is quite different. All models predict the extinction of the Vosges lineage in the wake of global warming, and also the southern Carpathians and Pyrenees‐Massif Central lineages might be at high risk to disappear. Thus, albeit global warming will therefore be unlikely to threaten E. manto as a species, an important proportion of the species’ intraspecific differentiation and thus uniqueness might be lost.     

Correlates of Self-directed Behaviors in Captive <Emphasis Type="Italic">Cercopithecus aethiops</Emphasis>

Researchers have widely used self-directed behaviors (SDB) as a behavioral indicator of anxiety in nonhuman primates. We examined if SDB rates in captive vervets (Cercopithecus aethiops) were associated with 1) proximity to conspecifics in general, 2) relative dominance rank of proximity partners, and 3) postconflict situations. Subjects were members of a captive group of vervets at the Lisbon Zoo, Portugal. The group comprised 3 males and 7 females, which were focal sampled for 10.5 h each. Vervets did not engage in more SBD while in proximity of conspecifics than while alone, and individual SDB rates were not generally influenced by dominance ranks of neighbors. Yet, victims of conflicts significantly increased their SDB rates after agonistic episodes, which is consistent with the view that SDB rates are an index of anxiety in Cercopithecus aethiops.