Short and plump physique of Mexican-American children

Mexican-American children are shorter but relatively heavier than non-Hispanic whites and blacks. The objectives of this paper are to assess the extent to which this "short and plump" physique occurs in data collected in two national surveys (HANES I and II); to determine variations by age, sex, and socioeconomic status; and to investigate the anthropometric characteristics that may account for the overweight. Three groups, defined on the basis of reported ancestry and observed race, are studied: Mexican-Americans (MEXAME), non-Hispanic Whites, (EURAME), and blacks (BLACK). Short stature was clearly associated with the poverty index (PI) in all three groups. MEXAMEs with a PI greater than 1.6 were similar in stature to EURAMEs at the same income level at ages 1-11 years but not at 12-17 years. On the other hand, MEXAMEs were shorter than BLACKs at all ages and income levels. The body mass index (kg/cm2) and poverty were unrelated. With respect to the anthropometric characteristics examined that are related to the body mass index, MEXAMEs and EURAMEs were similar in sitting height as a proportion of total height, arm muscle and fat areas, and triceps skinfold but different in the following ways: MEXAMEs had narrower elbow but broader bitrochanteric breadths and larger chest circumferences and subscapular skinfolds. Greater upper body dimensions and fatfolds seem to best describe the physique of MEXAMEs. However, in multiple regressions, these anthropometric characteristics failed to account fully for the greater relative weight of MEXAMEs as compared to EURAMEs.     

Does bone mineralization reflect economic conditions? An examination using a national US sample

BACKGROUND: Bone density is the most important determinant of osteoporotic fractures, which lead to significant morbidity, disability and mortality for older persons, particularly women. Sensitive periods for bone mineralization in infancy, childhood and adolescence overlap with those for height attainment. After peak density is reached in early adulthood, there is age-related decline. We ask whether bone density, as height, reflects economic conditions. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Using the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, a probability sample of the US population which over-sampled Blacks and Mexican Americans, we examine the associations between adult bone mineral content (BMC) adjusted for bone and body size and three economic indicators: education, height and the poverty income ratio (PIR). We compare four groups: US-born Whites, Blacks and Mexican Americans and Mexican-born Mexican Americans. RESULTS: Education is positively associated with BMC only for White women, although there are similar, non-significant associations for Black women and White and Black men. For women, BMC is more strongly associated with height for Mexican Americans, especially the Mexican-born, than for Whites. For men, the only significant association is a negative one with education for men born in Mexico. PIR is not significantly associated with BMC, although there is pattern of lower income being associated with lower BMC for Whites and Blacks and higher BMC for Mexican Americans. CONCLUSION: Bone density does not reflect economic conditions as strongly or consistently as does physical stature. However, for women there is evidence that lower economic status in childhood or adolescence is associated with lower bone density.     

Gender-specific growth patterns for stature,sitting height and limbs length in Croatian children and youth (3 to 18 years of age)

In a cross-sectional study of growth, 5,155 children (2,591 females, 2,564 males) from the town of Zagreb (Croatia) were measured. Four traits of linear dimensionality (stature, sitting height, arm and leg lengths) were studied in the age span of 3 to 18 years. A significant average annual increase of all four anthropometric parameters were observed up to 14 and 15 years of age in girls and 16 years of age in boys, showing that girls had a shorter growing period. In the prepubertal period until 9 years of age, gender differences were negligible. At the age of 10, boys were overgrown by girls in all parameters due to the earlier onset of puberty in girls. The growth gains for girls, when compared with those for boys, show a different pattern across variables. The female growth advantage remained in a two years period for the limbs length, but in a three year period for stature and the longest, for 4 years, for sitting height. The male predominance in size had an onset at the age of 13 for the limbs and in the age of 14 for stature and sitting height. The patterns of sexual dimorphism in stature and sitting height during growing years are similar to those observed in other populations of Europe. Growth of Croatian children and youth is very similar to that of the tallest European populations.     

Body composition and fat distribution pattern of urban elderly females, Delhi, India

The present study was conducted on females (n = 279) in the age range of 51-89 year, living in the urban dwellings of Delhi, India. Another group of 21-25 years old young adult females was taken as a control group. A total of 14 anthropometric measurements were taken: stature, sitting height, weight, skinfold thickness at nine different sites over the body and body girths such as upper arm, waist and hip circumference. Indices like body mass index, grand mean thickness, waist-hip ratio were computed to assess the body composition. Fat profile and responsiveness of different skinfold sites towards fat accumulation were studied to find out the regional fat distribution with advancing age. Redistribution of body fat was found to take place with increasing age. A relative preponderance of upper body fat was visible among elderly subjects. However, a clear reverse trend was observed in the young control group females. Significant differences were observed with regards to the body composition and fat profile between young adult females and test group females. Abdomen and the sub-scapular area were reported to be the most sensitive sites for fat deposition as the age advanced. The stature and sitting height showed significant decline with age. All the indices of adiposity i.e. grand mean thickness, waist-hip ratio and body mass index revealed significant changes in elderly females when compared with young adult control group females.     

Mexican body mass index values in the late-19th-century American West

No research has been done on the body mass index values of the 19th-century Mexican population. This paper introduces a new data source of 19th-century Mexican male inmates in American prisons and finds that the majority of Mexican body mass was in the normal range (18.5-24.9). Few Mexicans were underweight or obese by modern standards. Body mass varied little (0-0.9 units) by occupations possibly because criminals probably came from the lower end of the socioeconomic distribution; however, it did vary with crimes for which inmates were incarcerated.     

中国人群的体部指数

本文通过对63452例18～97岁的中国人体部12项指数值的统计分析,得出目前该年龄段中国人的体部形态特征。研究发现,中国人总体体型为长躯干型、中肩型、中骨盆型、中腿型。男性为中胸型,女性为宽胸型。随着年龄增长,上半身会显得更短一些,上半身与下半身比例更小一些,胸部更显宽厚一些,躯干下部显得更宽一些,腿显得更长一些。与南方族群相比,蒙古语族群、突厥语族群身体更壮实一些,胸部更显得宽厚一些,上身更高一些,上肢显得短一些,躯干的上部(肩部)相对窄一些,躯干的下部(骨盆)相对更宽一些,上肢长和下肢长度比例更小一些。研究还发现,同等身高的男性和女性相比,男性的上肢长度、下肢长度一般都小于女性,而女性比男性有一个更大的坐高值。从躯干长度来比较,女性确实比男性腿短一些。下身长相等的中国男性、女性之间相比,女性的坐高大于男性。同等身高情况下,中国人的坐高比欧亚人种、非洲人种的坐高要大,即有较高的上半身高度。     

Child growth and adult physique in Brazillan Xingu Indians

Data on stature, sitting height, biacromial width, and some other body measurements on 267 children and 363 adults of the Xingu Indians of Brazil have been analyzed. Adult height shows no significant decrease with age over an age range of 20–50 years, thus indicating the absence of secular changes. The average Xingu child seems to be around the twenty-fifth to fiftieth centile for height of British children (if our age estimates are correct) until about ten years in girls and 14 years in boys, but ends at below the third British centile as an adult. In sitting height, however, the Indians show substantially lower values, with children being at about the fifteenth centile until ten years in girls and 14 years in boys, while the adults are considerably below the British third centile. Other comparisons show that the Xingu are taller than Surinam Indians although of similar shoulder width. The lack of anthropometric data concerning South American Indian adults, and more especially children has been stressed. Investigations of these populations facing rapid acculturation and possible assimilation will form a baseline for the future work in public health as contacts with non-Indians increase.     

Physical growth of St. Lawrence Island Eskimos: Body size,proportion, and composition

Growth patterns of body size, proportion, and composition were analyzed in 57 male and 56 female Eskimos from St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea, ranging in age from 1.23 through 19.82 years. Age-groups means for whites and blacks of the U.S. Health Examination Survey served as reference data. Relative to HES data, the Eskimo sample were shorter with lower values for leg length, while there were no differences from the reference values for sitting height. The Eskimos also had higher values of Quetelet's Index, the sitting height/height ratio, and the upper arm muscle circumference, while there were no differences in body weight or triceps skinfold thickness. Differences from the reference data were more pronounced in males than in females. The growth patterns for size and body proportion are in conformity with known relationships between morphology and climate.     

山东省儿童青少年生长发育20年变化趋势

为了解近20年来山东省儿童青少年生长发育的变化趋势, 本文利用山东省1985年、1995年和2005年学生体质调研资料, 分析了7—18岁儿童青少年生长的长期变化。20年间, 7—18岁身高平均增长6.27cm(城男)、5.02cm(城女)、7.62cm(乡男)、5.69cm(乡女); 体重平均增长9.97kg(城男)、6.02kg(城女)、7.96kg(乡男)、4.87kg(乡女)。BMI明显增长, 7—18岁平均增长2.57kg/m2(城男)、1.46kg/m2(城女)、1.71kg/m2(乡男)、0.93kg/m2(乡女)。发育水平上的城乡差别依然存在, 但身高的城乡差别逐步缩小, 体重的城乡差别明显扩大。下肢长指数(身高—坐高)的增长幅度大于坐高的增长幅度。总之,1985—2005年的20年间,山东省7—18岁儿童青少年在身高、体重、BMI和身材比例等方面都发生了较大变化。     

Cross-sectional changes in anthropometric variables among Wapishana and Patamona Amerindian adults

Although anthropometric information on South American Indian populations has been collected for many years, remarkably little is known about age-related changes in their body size in adulthood. The lack of baseline information on the normal pattern of aging among Amerindian adults hinders investigations into the health consequences of the many economic, environmental and demographic changes that are currently occurring among South American Indian populations. This study presents data on the body size and shape of a convenience sample of 345 Patamona and 186 Wapishana Amerindian adults over 20 years of age living in the remote interior of Guyana. Analysis of the cross-sectional data demonstrated significant declines in stature, sitting height, and biacromial width with age, while there were no changes in subischial leg length or arm length across the age range of the study populations. In contrast, body weight and body mass index (BMI--a measure of body fatness) only declined in those over 50 years of age, after a period of increase. Significant differences in adult linear body dimensions were found between the two Amerindian populations that were proposed to be the result of known differences in childhood growth performance. However, the greater BMI of the Wapishana was shown to be associated with their significantly greater current wealth, thereby highlighting the presence of biological consequences of wealth inequalities even within these subsistence farming populations.     

蒙古族学生体质发育指数分析

本文以1985年测得的7—18岁蒙族男女学生4747名6项指标(身高、坐高、体重、胸围、肩宽和骨盆宽)的资料,计算出12项指数(坐高指数、体重指数、胸围指数、肩宽指数、骨盆宽指数、Vervaeck指数、骨盆宽/肩宽指数、Erismann指数、Broca指数、Pelidisi指数、Rohrer指数和Livi指数),分析了12项指数的年龄变化和性别差异,并对城乡、蒙族与全国汉族、1985年和1962年的数据进行了比较。     

The shape of things to come? household dependency ratio and adolescent nutritional status in rural and urban Ethiopia

Several related demographic trends are occurring in developing countries: youth comprise a large portion of populations, fertility rates are declining, and urban dwellers are increasing. As fertility rates decline and populations age, the decline in the ratio of young dependents to working age adults is expected to free up household resources, which can be invested in human capital, including youth nutritional wellbeing. We test this hypothesis in a sample of youth (n = 1,934) in Southwestern Ethiopia. Multiple measures of achieved growth and nutritional status are explored (weight, height, mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), body mass index (BMI) and body mass index for age z-score (BMIZ), weight for age z-score (WAZ), and height for age z-score (HAZ)). In multivariable models controlling for the effects of income, age, gender, and youth workloads, youth living in rural settings had significantly lower weight (1.24 kg lighter), MUAC (0.67 cm lower), BMI (0.45 BMI lower), BMIZ (0.27 lower), HAZ (0.14 HAZ lower), and WAZ (0.3 WAZ lower) than urban youth (all P < 0.01). Compared with youth in the lowest dependency ratio households, results show that youth in households with the highest dependency ratios were estimated to be 1.3 kg lighter, have 0.67 cm smaller MUAC, and BMI that was 0.59 lower (all P<0.01). Similar results were found for WAZ (0.21 lower) and BMIZ (0.36 lower). Youth height and HAZ were not associated with household dependency. These results may point toward increasing levels of human capital investments in Ethiopian youth as fertility levels decline and populations urbanize.     

The biological standard of living in 19th century Mexico and in the American West

During the mid-19th century, the United States acquired Texas and large parts of Mexican territory with the vast Mexican-born population. This paper considers the biological standard of living of the part of this population that was incarcerated in American prisons. We use their physical stature as a proxy for their biological welfare. These data confirm earlier results which showed that adult heights tended to stagnate in Mexico during the late-19th century despite considerable social and political turmoil. While there is some evidence of a decline in height among youth, the decline is slight (<1 cm). As in other 19th century samples, farmers were the tallest. Americans were taller than Mexican prisoners by about 2 cm.     

哈萨克族中小学生体质发育资料及身体发育指数分析

本文报告了新疆阿勒泰地区7—18岁哈萨克族中小学生体质发育的调查结果。重点分析3456名城镇哈萨克族学生的体质发育资料。体质发育调查指标包括身高、体重、胸围、坐高、肩宽、骨盆宽六项,其增长幅度及变异度皆以体重为大。哈萨克族学生的身高不论男女,在多数年龄组小于国内同龄汉族学生,而体重则多数年龄组大于国内同龄汉族。本文还分析了哈萨克族学生的六项身体发育指数。     

哈萨克族学生体质发育状况的10年比较分析

报道新疆阿勒泰地区1995年2589名城镇7—18岁哈萨克族(哈族)中小学生身高、体重、胸围、坐高、肩宽、骨盆宽6项体质发育指标的调查结果。男女生体质发育指标随年龄增加而增长,各项指标的年均增长值皆为男生大于女生。与1985年比较,哈族学生的身高、体重、胸围皆有不同程度增长。哈族男女生的身高突增年龄仍分别为14岁和10岁,但是其身高增长却不伴有相应比例的坐高增长,女生部分年龄组的肩宽和男女生各年龄组的骨盆宽呈现负增长,提示哈族学生的体型与10年前相比已经开始有所改变。     

Body Composition Characteristics During Puberty in Girls and Boys from Eastern Austria

Puberty represents the final stage of sexual differentiation when the individual acquires reproductive capacity. Puberty is not only characterized by maturation of sexual organs and the formation of oocytes and mature spermatozoa, but also by the development of secondary sexual dimorphism. In industrialized countries, the age of puberty has decreased steadily over the last 150 years in association with improved socio-economic conditions. However, the decreased onset of puberty, especially in females, is associated with problematic changes in behaviour such as early onset of sexual activity resulting in high-risk teenage pregnancies. In our study, we analysed the association between body composition (fat tissue and fat-free body mass, estimated by BIA analyses), height, body mass index and fat distribution and signs of puberty such as the timing of menarche in 228 girls and voice breaking and facial hair growth in 191 boys ageing between 10 and 15 years. In both sexes, signs of puberty were associated, highly significantly, with body composition parameters. Nevertheless, marked differences between the two sexes were observed: Female puberty was positively associated with weight status and the absolute and relative amount of body fat, while in males, puberty was positively related with a higher amount of fat-free body mass and a decreased fat mass. Male voice breaking was significantly associated with increased stature, body weight, waist and hip circumference, lean body mass and total body water. In contrast, voice breaking was significantly negatively associated with the fat percentage, the total fat mass and the waist-to-hip ratio. Female menarche was significantly positively associated with increased body weight, weight status, waist and hip circumference and also with increased absolute and relative fat mass, relative hip circumference, lean body mass and total body water. Only the waist-to-hip ratio was significantly negatively associated with the onset of menarche.     

The Diabetes Alert study: growth, fatness, and fat patterning, adolescence through adulthood in Mexican Americans

Diabetes Alert is a multidisciplinary genetic and epidemiological study of Type II (non insulin-dependent) diabetes in Texas Mexican Americans. We report the anthropometry of 1,155 individuals 10 to 70 or more years with particular reference to overweight, fatness, and anatomical fat patterning in the sample. Children ages 10-18 of both sexes are growing at the 50th percentile of the reference data (U.S. Health and Nutrition Examination Survey-1) for height, Wt/Ht2, and triceps and subscapular skinfolds. Adults are well below median height but well above median Wt/Ht2 and skinfolds. Prevalence of obesity (Wt/Ht2 greater than or equal to 30) among adults is typically 30% or higher by age 30. Diabetics compared to age/sex-matched non diabetics have shorter sitting heights, have more upper body fat (subscapular skinfold), have less lower body fat (lateral calf skinfold), and were heavier at maximum weight and at age 18. The ratio of lower to upper body fat distribution decreases over the life cycle, being highest at adolescence and lowest at ages 40-50 in both sexes. Our results show a precipitous weight gain after maturity in the sample and an association of diabetes with differences in anatomical fat patterning. The age-related changes in fat patterning need to be explained in terms of their ecological and genetic influences.     

Ethnic differences in anthropometric characteristics of young children and their parents

The distribution of body fat, or fat patterning, is an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease and diabetes, independent of obesity. Furthermore, the incidence of cardiovascular disease and diabetes varies by ethnicity. We documented ethnic differences in anthropometric characteristics and body fat distribution between Anglo, Black, and Mexican American men (n = 101), women (n = 245), boys (n = 111), and girls (n = 111). We used aggregates of skinfold measures to examine ethnic differences in the deposition of fat in body compartments (body, trunk, leg, and arm) and analyzed trunk-extremity skinfold ratios to determine which best reflected ethnic differences in fat distribution. The results show that Mexican American mothers have larger skinfold ratios and more body fat (as determined by skinfold aggregates) than either Anglo or Black American mothers, whereas Black American mothers have larger ratios than Anglo American mothers. Mexican American fathers also have larger skinfold ratios but not more body fat (skinfold aggregates) than Anglo American fathers. Mexican American fathers have more body fat than Black American fathers, but we found no differences between skinfold ratios. The ethnic differences among children in skinfold ratios and aggregates are similar to those found among fathers, with more differences among girls than boys. Fat patterning differences do exist among the three ethnicities, with greater trunk fat among Mexican and Black Americans. Those ethnicities are known to be at higher risk for cardiovascular disease and diabetes.     

遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年身体高度及其比例的影响

目前有关儿童青少年坐高、下肢长及其比值的报道多为非双生子人群的研究。为了解遗传和环境因素对儿童青少年坐高、下肢长及坐高与下肢长比值影响的相对大小,我们对796对6～18岁双生子的身高和坐高进行了测量,计算下肢长及坐高与下肢长比值,采用结构方程模型分析其遗传和环境相对效应。结果发现,校正年龄后,男女15～18岁年龄组坐高和下肢长的遗传度(0.63～0.78)均分别高于同性别低年龄段儿童青少年(0.31～0.68);坐高与下肢长比值的遗传度除9～11岁女生(0.84)外,其他年龄组均较低(男0.16～0.46,女0.21～0.57);共同环境因素和特殊环境因素对6～14岁儿童青少年各指标的作用较大。本研究提示,在快速发育时期,坐高、下肢长和坐高与下肢长比值对环境因素更为敏感,遗传度较低;机体越成熟,其遗传效应更强。