The discovery of the body: human dissection and its cultural contexts in ancient Greece.

In the first half of the third century B.C, two Greeks, Herophilus of Chalcedon and his younger contemporary Erasistratus of Ceos, became the first and last ancient scientists to perform systematic dissections of human cadavers. In all probability, they also conducted vivisections of condemned criminals. Their anatomical and physiological discoveries were extraordinary. The uniqueness of these events presents an intriguing historical puzzle. Animals had been dissected by Aristotle in the preceding century (and partly dissected by other Greeks in earlier centuries), and, later, Galen (second century A.D.) and others again systematically dissected numerous animals. But no ancient scientists ever seem to have resumed systematic human dissection. This paper explores, first, the cultural factors--including traditional Greek attitudes to the corpse and to the skin, also as manifested in Greek sacred laws--that may have prevented systematic human dissection during almost all of Greek antiquity, from the Pre-Socratic philosopher-scientists of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. to distinguished Greek physicians of the later Roman Empire. Second, the exceptional constellation of cultural, political, and social circumstances in early Alexandria that might have emboldened Herophilus to overcome the pressures of cultural traditions and to initiate systematic human dissection, is analyzed. Finally, the paper explores possible reasons for the mysteriously abrupt disappearance of systematic human dissection from Greek science after the death of Erasistratus and Herophilus.     

Sedentism,Social Change,Warfare, and the Bow in the Ancient Pueblo Southwest

In the ancient American Southwest, use of the bow developed relatively rapidly among Pueblo people by the fifth century AD. This new technology replaced the millennia‐old atlatl and dart weaponry system. Roughly 150 years later in the AD 600s, Pueblo socioeconomic organization began to evolve rapidly, as many groups adopted a much more sedentary life. Multiple factors converged to allow this sedentary pattern to emerge, but the role of the bow in this process has not been fully explored. In this paper, we trace the development of the bow and discuss its role as sedentism emerged and social changes occurred in ancient Puebloan society from the fifth through seventh centuries AD.     

From social to genetic structures in central Asia

Pastoral and farmer populations, who have coexisted in Central Asia since the fourth millennium B.C., present not only different lifestyles and means of subsistence but also various types of social organization. Pastoral populations are organized into so-called descent groups (tribes, clans, and lineages) and practice exogamous marriages (a man chooses a bride in a different lineage or clan). In Central Asia, these descent groups are patrilineal: The children are systematically affiliated with the descent groups of the father. By contrast, farmer populations are organized into families (extended or nuclear) and often establish endogamous marriages with cousins. This study aims at better understanding the impact of these differences in lifestyle and social organization on the shaping of genetic diversity. We show that pastoral populations exhibit a substantial loss of Y chromosome diversity in comparison to farmers but that no such a difference is observed at the mitochondrial-DNA level. Our analyses indicate that the dynamics of patrilineal descent groups, which implies different male and female sociodemographic histories, is responsible for these sexually-asymmetric genetic patterns. This molecular signature of the pastoral social organization disappears over a few centuries only after conversion to an agricultural way of life.     

The history of the plant embryo. Terminology and visualization from ancient until modern times

Since ancient times comparisons between embryonic forms of humans, animals, and plants are known. In deciphering a plant embryo and its development, one applied a specific zoomorphic terminology. Until the 17th century naturalists who studied plants were inspired by the concepts of ancient natural philosophy. Since then plant embryos are visualized by drawings and diagrammatic sketches. In the 18th century the embryo became an important issue in debates concerning theories of generation and the analogy between animal egg and vegetable seed was emphasized. Due to the cell theory and refined microscopic techniques around 1850 botanists described the 'plant embryo' as an aggregate of cells. The 20th century profited of further technical improvements, e.g. microphotography, SEM, and plant tissue culture. The spell of the word embryo integrated morphological and morphogenetic data in botany and served as a code to decipher botanic forms. The paper presents a short history of the concept of 'plant embryo' and focuses on its distinct meanings over centuries, supported by different images.     

The neotropical genera of Marantaceae. Circumscription and relationships

The delimitation of the neotropical genera of the Marantaceae has been revised, using evidence mainly from the morphology of inflorescences and flowers. It is concluded that the generic concepts of Schumann in "Das Pflanzenreich", often questioned by 20th century American authors, are essentially sound, but that his grouping of the genera into two tribes is quite artificial. Main deviations from the treatment of Schumann are the rearrangement of the genera, somewhat different stress on diagnostic characters and a much narrower concept of the genus Myrosma. A new genus, Koernickanthe is proposed for the long known species Maranta orbiculata (Koern.) Schum. The genera are arranged into informal groups and the groups and genera recognized are: Maranta group (Maranta L., Monophyllanthe Schum.), Myrosma group (Myrosma L. f., Saranthe (Regel et Koern.) Eichl., Hylaeanthe Jonker et Jonker, Ctenanthe Eichl., Stromanthe Sond.), Calathea group (Calathea G. F. W. Meyer, lschnosiphon Koern., Pleiostachya Schum.), Monotagma group (Monotagma Schum., Koernickanthe gen. nov.) and Thalia "group" (Thalia L.). It is suggested, that each group has its closest affinities with Old World genera and that this indicates that the diversification of the marantaceous stock was far–reaching already before the Old and the New World became effectively isolated. It is further suggested that the early diversification of the family took place in Africa, the flora of which, although poor in species, is morphologically very diverse. Two new combinations are made, viz. Stromanthe stromanthoides (Macbr.) Anderss. and Koernickanthe orbiculata (Koern.) Anderss.     

Identification of the ligand-binding regions in the macrophage colony-stimulating factor receptor extracellular domain.

The c-fms gene encodes the receptor for the macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), and its extracellular domain consists of five immunoglobulin-like subdomains. To identify which of the five immunoglobulin-like regions are involved in ligand binding, we polymerase chain reaction-cloned five segments of the extracellular domain of the murine c-fms gene, each starting with the normal initiation codon and containing successive additions of the immunoglobulin-like subdomains. These protein segments are designated A, B, C, D, and E and contain, from the N-terminal end, either one, two, three, four, or all five immunoglobulin-like subdomains, respectively. Each segment was expressed as a secreted soluble protein from a baculovirus expression vector in Sf9 insect cells. In addition, segments A, B, C, and E were produced as soluble alkaline phosphatase fusion proteins, as was a segment containing only the fourth and fifth immunoglobulin domains. These segments of the Fms extracellular domain were used to assess M-CSF binding by competition radioimmunoassays, plate binding immunoassays, and immunoprecipitation analyses. The results indicated that the first two N-terminal immunoglobulin-like domains did not interact with M-CSF but, in combination with the third immunoglobulin-like domain, provided high-affinity M-CSF binding. The fourth and fifth immunoglobulin-like domains near the cell membrane did not exhibit M-CSF binding and may inhibit interaction of M-CSF with the first three immunoglobulin domains. These results suggest that the three N-terminal immunoglobulin-like domains constitute the high-affinity M-CSF binding region and that the fourth and fifth immunoglobulin-like domains may perform functions other than ligand binding.     

Early influence of the steppe tribes in the peopling of Siberia

The Yakuts, Middle Age Turkic speakers (15th-16th centuries), are widely accepted as the first settlers of the Altai-Baikal area in eastern Siberia. They are supposed to have introduced horses and developed metallurgy in this geographic area during the 15th or 16th century A.D. The analysis of the Siberian grave of Pokrovsk, recently discovered near the Lena River (61 degrees 29' N) and dated by accelerator mass spectrometry from 2,400 to 2,200 years B.P., may provide new elements to test this hypothesis. The exceptional combination of various artifacts and the mitochondrial DNA data extracted from the bone remains of the Pokrovsk man might prove the existence of previous contacts between autochthonous hunters of Oriental Siberia and the nomadic horse breeders from the Altai-Baikal area (Mongolia and Buryatia). Indeed, the stone arrowhead and the harpoons relate this Pokrovsk man to the traditional hunters of the Taiga. Some artifacts made of horse bone and the pieces of armor, however, are related to the tribes of Mongolia and Buryatia of the Xiongnu period (3rd century B.C.). This affinity has been confirmed by the match of the mitochondrial haplotype of this subject with a woman of the Egyin Gol necropolis (Mongolia, 2nd/3rd century A.D.) as well as with two modern Buryats. This result allows us to postulate that contacts between southern steppe populations and Siberian tribes occurred before the 15th century.     

Marine research in Greece and the additional Greek marine research centres: Progress and present situation

Greece, as is known, has a coastline of 17 000 km, and over 2000 small and large islands. As expected, the quest of humankind for new sources of matter and energy has been focussed on the sea, with fishery being its primary interest. A number of philosophers and scientists have been involved in the study of this vast ecosystem since ancient times (Aristotle). The political, social and geographical upheavals witnessed in the Greek area, have, however resulted in bringing all these activities to a halt. The first contemporary research work commenced at the end of the 18th century/beginning of the 19th — with marine flora and fauna as its starting point. The first investigations had, of course, been limited to random collections of marine material done in the frame of international exploratory expeditions. Studies became more systematic by the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, with priority being given to the animal kingdom (fish, molluscs, etc.). Investigation of the marine phytobenthos (macrophyceae, phytoplankton) was to follow. The past 40 years research has been more extensive, not limited only to biogeographical evaluations, but also having expanded to physiological and ecological levels. The relevant institutes of Greek universities have all the while watched and contributed to this effort. Today, this kind of research is being supported by the N.M.R.C., the Center of Marine Research, University of Crete, and two research boats which sail the Greek seas. In the ever-changing world, the study of marine flora and fauna has certainly made great progress; however, there are still two big problems to be faced. The first deals with increasing pollution of the seas, the second, with the difficulties in finding and affording adequate financial resources that would enable a more detailed and complete execution of this research work.     

Induced abortion--a historical outline

An historical review of the use of induced abortion is presented, beginning with early eras. The Chinese were the 1st to record the practice of induced abortion, with this operation being administered to royal concubines recorded at 500-515 B.C. Induced abortion was not used in ancient Greece, either for criminal or ethical reason. However, the ancient Greeks did utilize compulsory abortion for serious economic indications, as a means of controlling natural growth. Greek medical, gyneoclogigcal instruments for adminsitering abortions were described by Hippocrates. The Greek moral attitudes on abortion were largely adopted by the Romans, which were later altered by the appearance of Christianity and new ethical ideas. These ideas dominated European attitudes, along with the Church of Rome, limiting induced abortion to cases where the life of the mother was threatened. This attitude has existed until the present century, when these moral ideas are being challanged seriously for the 1st time in modern history.     

Text Mining the History of Medicine

Historical text archives constitute a rich and diverse source of information, which is becoming increasingly readily accessible, due to large-scale digitisation efforts. However, it can be difficult for researchers to explore and search such large volumes of data in an efficient manner. Text mining (TM) methods can help, through their ability to recognise various types of semantic information automatically, e.g., instances of concepts (places, medical conditions, drugs, etc.), synonyms/variant forms of concepts, and relationships holding between concepts (which drugs are used to treat which medical conditions, etc.). TM analysis allows search systems to incorporate functionality such as automatic suggestions of synonyms of user-entered query terms, exploration of different concepts mentioned within search results or isolation of documents in which concepts are related in specific ways. However, applying TM methods to historical text can be challenging, according to differences and evolutions in vocabulary, terminology, language structure and style, compared to more modern text. In this article, we present our efforts to overcome the various challenges faced in the semantic analysis of published historical medical text dating back to the mid 19^th century. Firstly, we used evidence from diverse historical medical documents from different periods to develop new resources that provide accounts of the multiple, evolving ways in which concepts, their variants and relationships amongst them may be expressed. These resources were employed to support the development of a modular processing pipeline of TM tools for the robust detection of semantic information in historical medical documents with varying characteristics. We applied the pipeline to two large-scale medical document archives covering wide temporal ranges as the basis for the development of a publicly accessible semantically-oriented search system. The novel resources are available for research purposes, while the processing pipeline and its modules may be used and configured within the Argo TM platform.     

Morphology of inhibited larvae of the bovine lungworm Dictyocaulus viviparus.

Some morphological features of inhibited fourth stage (L4) and fourth moult larvae (4M) of the bovine lungworm Dictyocaulus viviparus are described. Inhibition was induced by maintaining the third stage larvae (L3) for 6 weeks at 4 degrees C. Inhibited fourth stage (L4) and fourth moult larvae (4M) were collected by perfusion of the lungs of experimentally infected calves after necropsy at 15 and 68 days post infection (d.p.i.), respectively. Inhibited 4M, isolated at 68 d.p.i., were about ten times larger than inhibited L4 isolated at 15 d.p.i.     

Studies of Male Survivors of Myocardial Infarction: IX. Mortality Experience and Insurability

The mortality of a group of Canadians who survived myocardial infarction for at least three months was compared with the mortality of medically selected lives insured in Canada at standard rates. The results were expressed as the ratio of the actual deaths incurred in the infarction group to the deaths expected according to the insured table. There were 120 men, approximately 25 in each decade from the fourth to the eighth inclusive, with no condition other than coronary disease which might affect survival. The severity and number of infarcts did not influence selection.Calculating from the date of entry into the study the mortality ratio after 10 years was 530%. Calculating from the date of first infarction, the mortality ratio from 0 to five years was 980%, from six to 10 years 510% and after 10 years 320%. The mortality ratio was greatest in the fourth decade, 9400%, and decreased progressively: fifth, 2400%; sixth, 1300%; seventh, 400%; eighth, 230%. In the younger groups the high mortality ratios were due to the small number of expected deaths at young ages, not to an increase in the absolute number of actual deaths. In each age group the mortality ratio decreased with time but remained substantially increased even after 10 years. The mortality experience of this coronary group was worse than that of more rigidly selected, insured coronary groups.     

Brother-sister and parent-child marriage outside royal families in ancient egypt and iran: A challenge to the sociobiological view of incest avoidance?

Copious and unequivocal evidence of legally condoned and socially favored brother-sister and parent-child marriage among common people from Roman Egypt (first to third centuries, A.D.) and Zoroastrian Iran (fifth century, B.C. to 11th century, A.D.) can be taken to pose a challenge to the sociobiological case for universal evolved incest avoidance within the nuclear family, triggered by early childhood proximity (the Westermarck effect). Official census documents from Roman Egypt show a high incidence of full sibling unions with relatively small age gaps between the spouses and no indication of reduced marital fertility, sexual aversion, or increased infant and child mortality. Zoroastrian religious tracts actively encourage nuclear family incest and extol its meritorious nature and supernatural benefits. A schematic assessment of the likely extent of inbreeding depression in such families under conditions of very high mortality through other causes makes reproduction at replacement level seem difficult to accomplish. But given the lack of information on the frequency of deleterious recessive genes in these populations, this reconstruction is fraught with uncertainty; pertinent ancient evidence is suggestive of some incidence of inbreeding depression but remains inconclusive. Aversion and revulsion between incestuous spouses proves a similarly elusive issue. Although these cases from antiquity do not clearly contradict the view of incest avoidance as an evolved mechanism that engenders sexual indifference and normally translates into corresponding cultural norms, they demonstrate the need for a more comprehensive consideration of the available historical record in the testing of evolutionary rules.     

吉林省敦化地区晚全新世泥炭沼泽孢粉组合特征及古植被

对大桥泥炭地的孢粉进行了分析和年龄测定.根据孢粉组合、地层特征和¹⁴C年龄将剖面划分为4个孢粉带,分别为2 195±70～2 045±70 yr B.P.松为主的松-云冷杉-榛-栎-苔草组合带、2 045±70～1 745±70 yr B.P.苔草为主的松-桦-榛 胡桃-苔草组合带、1 745±70～705±70 yr B.P.松-榛-鹅耳枥-苔草-毛茛组合带和705±70 yr B.P.～1 950 yr A.D.松-云冷杉-桦-苔草组合带.周围植被由温带山地针叶林（类似现今海拔1 100 m以上）、温带针阔混交林下部（类似现今海拔400～600 m）和温带针阔混交林中部（类似现今海拔600～800 m）过渡到温带针阔混交林上部（类似现今海拔800～1 100 m）.相应地,泥炭沼泽经历了孕育期、蓬勃发展期、继续扩张期和消亡期.     

Multiple models for Rosaceae genomics

The plant family Rosaceae consists of over 100 genera and 3,000 species that include many important fruit, nut, ornamental, and wood crops. Members of this family provide high-value nutritional foods and contribute desirable aesthetic and industrial products. Most rosaceous crops have been enhanced by human intervention through sexual hybridization, asexual propagation, and genetic improvement since ancient times, 4,000 to 5,000 B.C. Modern breeding programs have contributed to the selection and release of numerous cultivars having significant economic impact on the U.S. and world markets. In recent years, the Rosaceae community, both in the United States and internationally, has benefited from newfound organization and collaboration that have hastened progress in developing genetic and genomic resources for representative crops such as apple (Malus spp.), peach (Prunus spp.), and strawberry (Fragaria spp.). These resources, including expressed sequence tags, bacterial artificial chromosome libraries, physical and genetic maps, and molecular markers, combined with genetic transformation protocols and bioinformatics tools, have rendered various rosaceous crops highly amenable to comparative and functional genomics studies. This report serves as a synopsis of the resources and initiatives of the Rosaceae community, recent developments in Rosaceae genomics, and plans to apply newly accumulated knowledge and resources toward breeding and crop improvement.     

Importation route of the sickle cell trait into Portugal: contribution of molecular epidemiology.

To elucidate the origin and spread of the sickle cell trait into the Portuguese population, we examined nine polymorphic DNA markers within the beta globin gene cluster defining the haplotype. The population sample included 64 sickle-cell-gene-bearing individuals from defined Portuguese-speaking white, black, and Asian Indian populations. The nature and geographic distribution of the different beta S haplotypes in Portugal suggest that the sickle cell trait has been imported twice: between the eighth and the thirteenth centuries from the Mediterranean basin (in association with the Benin haplotype) and after the fifteenth century from black Africa over an Atlantic route (Senegal and Bantu haplotypes).