Accelerated Transformation and Binding of 2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene in Rhizosphere Soil

Enhanced microbial activity and xenobiotic transformations take place in the rhizosphere. Degradation and binding of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) were determined in two rhizosphere soils (RS) and compared to respective unplanted control soils (CS). The rhizosphere soils were obtained after growing corn for 70 d in soils containing 2.8% (Soil A) or 5.9% (Soil B) organic matter. Aerobically agitated soil slurries (3:1, solution/soil) were prepared from RS and CS and amended with 75 mg TNT L^-1 (¹⁴C-labeled). TNT degraded more rapidly and formed more un-extractable bound residue in RS than in CS. In Soil A, total extractable TNT decreased from 225 to 1.0 mg kg^-1 in RS, whereas 11 mg kg^-1 remained in CS after 15 d. Unextractable bound ¹⁴C residues accounted for 40% of the added ¹⁴C-TNT in RS and 28% in CS. The smaller differences in Soil B were attributed partially to the higher organic matter content. The predominant TNT degradation products were monoaminodinitrotoluenes (ADNT), which accumulated and disappeared more rapidly in RS than in CS, and hydroxylaminodinitrotoluenes (HADNT). When sterilized by γ-irradiation, no significant differences between RS and CS were observed in TNT loss or bound residue formation. More rapid TNT degradation and enhanced bound residue formation in the unsterilized RS was attributed to micro-bial-facilitated production and transformation of HADNT and ADNT, which are potential precursors to bound residue formation. If plants can be established on TNT-contaminated soil, these results indicate that the rhizosphere can accelerate reductive transformation of TNT and promote bound residue formation.     

Hepatic CYP1A induction in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) after exposure to benzo[a]pyrene in water

Juvenile rainbow trout were exposed to unlabelled benzo[a]pyrene BaP and ³H benzo a pyrene (³H BaP), in a static exposure system for 2 days. The initial concentration was 30 μg l^-1 and 0.625 μCi l^-1, corresponding to 6 mg kg^-1 body weight and 125 μCi kg^-1 body weight. Hepatic 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity was measured during the exposure and depuration periods, elucidating the time course pattern of CYP1A induction. Maximum induction (11-fold) of EROD activity was observed on day 2 after addition of BaP to the water. Tissue distribution of ³H-BaP was studied by liquid scintillation counting and whole body autoradiography. The concentration of ³H-BaP-derived radioactivity was highest in the bile at all sampling times. High levels of radiolabelled compound were also present in the gills, liver and the olfactory organ. There was an overall decrease in all tissues during the depuration period. The elimination of ³H-BaP-derived radioactivity from the gills, however, was slow compared with liver and blood (6.2 days vs 2.7 and 2.9 days, respectively).     

Evaluation of tissue and cellular biomarkers to assess 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) exposure in earthworms: effects-based assessment in laboratory studies using Eisenia andrei

The lysosomal neutral red retention time (NRRT) assay, a biomarker for lysosomal membrane stability, and the total immune activity (TIA) assay, a measure of non-specific immune system activity, were used in laboratory studies to assess the toxic effects of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) on earthworms (Eisenia andrei) in vivo. The results were compared with the concentration of TNT and its metabolites in earthworm tissue, as well as standard sublethal toxicity endpoints including growth (i.e. weight change) and reproduction effects from previously published studies. Filter paper experiments indicated a significant decrease in NRRT at ≥1.8 µg TNT cm^-2, whereas sublethal (weight loss) and lethal effects to earthworms were detected at ≥3.5 and 7.1 µg TNT cm^-2, respectively. Experiments in artificial soil showed that NRRT effects could be detected at lower TNT concentrations ( ≥55 mg TNT kg^-1 soil dry weight) compared with other sublethal endpoints (effects on growth and reproduction). The TIA biomarker did not significantly respond to TNT. Copper (as CuSO₄, filter paper contact tests) and 2-chloroacetamide (soil tests), which were used as reference toxicants, also decreased the NRRT. The use of the NRRT assay linked with tissue concentrations of TNT metabolites in earthworms was identified as a potentially appropriate biomarker approach for TNT exposure assessment under laboratory conditions and a novel tool for effects-based risk assessment.     

Non-Ligninolytic TNT Mineralization in Contaminated Soil by Phanerochaete chrysosporium

The explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is widely used and results in widespread soil contamination. The white-rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium has been shown to degrade TNT, using the peroxidase enzyme. In this study, we report peroxidase-independent degradation of TNT by non-ligninolytic P. chrysosporium. Significant disappearance of TNT from highly contaminated soil using P. chrysosporium has been observed. Soil highly contaminated with TNT (2270 ppm [10 mM]) was diluted to 100 ppm (0.44 mM) with malt extract medium. Pregrown (48 hours) mycelial pellets of P. chrysosporium were added in 100 mL malt extract medium and incubated in Gledhill flasks. Analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was conducted on soil extracts at specific time points to estimate the disappearance of TNT from contaminated soil incubated with P. chrysosporium. When the pregrown mycelial pellets were added, TNT disappeared within 48 hours. The dissolved concentration of 2-amino-4,6-dinitrotoluene (2Am-DNT) increased up to the third day, then declined before its final disappearance by day 10. Results show that the pregrown mycelial pellets of P. chrysosporium mineralized up to 17.3±6.3% [¹⁴C]-TNT within 30 days.     

稻田与旱地土壤自养微生物同化碳在土壤中的矿化与转化特征

选择亚热带地区3种典型稻田和旱地土壤,应用碳同位素^14C-CO₂标记示踪技术结合室内模拟培养试验,研究自养微生物同化碳(“新碳”)在土壤碳库中的矿化和转化特征.结果表明: 在100 d的培养期内,“新碳”的矿化经历了先上升、10 d后缓慢下降、最后渐趋稳定的3个阶段.“新碳”的矿化比例为8.0%～26.9%,矿化速率为0.01～0.22 μg ¹⁴C·g^-1·d^-1,其中,稻田土壤为0.01～0.22 μg ¹⁴C·g^-1·d^-1,旱地土壤为0.01～0.08 μg ¹⁴C·g^-1·d^-1,而原有有机碳的矿化比例为1.6%～5.7%,矿化速率为1.3～25.66 μg C·g^-1·d^-1.土壤活性碳库\[可溶性有机碳(DOC)、微生物生物量碳(MBC)\]中,¹⁴C-DOC在培养初期(0～10 d)先上升,升高幅度达0.3 mg·kg^-1,10～30 d又迅速下降,下降幅度达0.42 mg·kg^-1,至30 d后缓慢下降.¹⁴C-MBC的波动与¹⁴C-DOC不同,在培养初期(0～10 d)先迅速下降,10～30 d又迅速上升,至40 d后缓慢下降并趋于稳定.水稻土¹⁴C-DOC/DOC的转化更新速率明显大于旱地,而旱地¹⁴C-MBC/MBC的转化更新速率大于水稻土.
     

干旱过程中荒漠生物土壤结皮-土壤系统的硝化作用对温度和湿度的响应——以沙坡头地区为例

以腾格里沙漠东南缘天然植被区由藻类、藓类结皮所覆盖的土壤和流沙为研究对象,采用原状土室内培养法,在15和20 ℃两个温度、10%和25%两个湿度下连续培养20 d,分别在培养后的第1、2、5、8、12、20天连续测定土壤样品中的NO₃^--N含量,探讨不同温度和湿度条件下荒漠土壤的净硝化速率在干旱过程中的变化规律.结果表明： 藓类结皮的NO₃^--N含量（2.29 mg·kg^-1）高于藻类结皮（1.84 mg·kg^-1）和流沙（1.59 mg·kg^-1）,3种类型的土壤净硝化速率介于-3.47～2.97 mg·kg^-1·d^-1之间.10%湿度条件下,藻类和藓类结皮在25 ℃下的净硝化速率比15 ℃分别减少75.1%和0.7%;25%湿度条件下,分别减少99.1%和21.3%;15 ℃、10%湿度条件下藻类和藓类结皮的净硝化速率比25 ℃、25%湿度条件下增加193.4%和107.3%.表明在全球变暖背景下,无论土壤湿度增加或减少,干旱过程中的荒漠生物土壤结皮-土壤系统净硝化速率在一定程度上都会受到抑制.     

农田栽参土壤改良中肥料对土壤元素及酶活性的影响

为探究农田栽参土壤改良中肥料对土壤元素与土壤酶活性的影响, 于2019年5月21日采集经混合肥、土地乐、腐殖酸、木醋液、益生源处理过的土壤样品, 对其土壤养分与土壤酶活性进行研究。结果表明: 不同肥料在土壤中发挥出不同的作用, 施用混合肥的土壤SOM、ACa含量最高分别为139.51 g·kg-1、848.9 mg·kg-1。施用土地乐生物有机肥后土壤中AP和AMn含量最高分别为36.7 mg·kg-1、126.12 mg·kg-1。施用腐殖酸后土壤中AFe、电导率、AK数值最高分别为737.36 mg·kg-1、59.67 mg·kg-1、794.87 mg·kg-1。施用木醋液与益生源菌剂后各养分均有不同程度增加; 过氧化氢酶活性在混合肥处理后最低, 对照处理最高。漆酶活性在腐殖酸处理后最低, 木醋液处理最高。蔗糖酶活性在腐殖酸处理最低, 混合肥处理最高。脲酶活性在腐殖酸处理最低, 益生源处理后最高; 相关性分析表明, 土壤养分与土壤酶活性有密切关系, 存在不同程度的相关性。五种肥料在土壤改良中都有显著效果     

Rate of electron transfer between plastocyanin, cytochrome ƒ, related proteins and artificial redox reagents in solution

The rate of electron transfer between reduced cytochrome ƒ and plastocyanin (both purified from parsley) has been measured as k = 3.6 · 10⁷ M⁻¹ · s⁻¹, at 298 °K and pH 7.0, with activation parameters ΔH^‡ = 44 kJ · mole⁻¹ and ΔS^‡ = +46 J · mole⁻¹ · °K⁻¹. Replacement of cytochrome ƒ with red algal cytochrome c-553, Pseudomonas cytochrome c-551 and mammalian cytochrome c gave rates at least 30 times slower: k = 5 · 10⁵, 7.5 · 10⁵ and 1.0 · 10⁶ M⁻¹ · s⁻¹, respectively.

Similar measurements made with azurin instead of plastocyanin gave k = 6 · 10⁶ and approx. 2 · 10⁷ M⁻¹ · s⁻¹ for reaction of reduced azurin with cytochrome ƒ and algal cytochrome respectively.

Rate constants of 115 and 80 M⁻¹ · s⁻¹ were found for reduction of plastocyanin by ascorbate and hydroquinone at 298 °K and pH 7.0. The rate constants for the oxidation of plastocyanin, cytochrome ƒ, Pseudomonas cytochrome c-551 and red algal cytochrome c-553 by ferricyanide were found to be between 3 · 10⁴ and 8 · 10⁴ M⁻¹ · s⁻¹.

The results are discussed in relation to photosynthetic electron transport.     

Thermophilic methanogenic Archaea in compost material: occurrence, persistence and possible mechanisms for their distribution to other environments

Since compost is widely used as soil amendment and the fact that during the processing of compost material high amounts of microorganisms are released into the air, we investigated whether compost may act as a carrier for thermophilic methanogens to temperate soils.

All eight investigated compost materials showed a clear methane production potential between 0.01 and 0.98 μmol CH₄ g dw⁻¹ h⁻¹ at 50 °C. Single strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) and cloning analysis indicated the presence of Methanosarcina thermophila, Methanoculleus thermophilus, and Methanobacterium formicicum.

Bioaerosols collected during the turning of a compost pile showed both a highly similar SSCP profile compared to the corresponding compost material and clear methane production during anoxic incubation in selective medium at 50 °C. Both observations indicated a considerable release of thermophilic methanogens into the air.

To analyse the persistence of compost-borne thermophilic methanogens in temperate oxic soils, we therefore studied their potential activity in compost and compost/soil mixtures, which was brought to a meadow soil, as well as in an agricultural soil fertilised with compost. After 24 h anoxic incubation at 50 °C, all samples containing compost showed a clear methanogenic activity, even 1 year after application.

In combination with the in vitro observed resilience of the compost-borne methanogens against desiccation and UV radiation we assume that compost material acts as an effective carrier for the distribution of thermophilic methanogens by fertilisation and wind.     

Characterization of humic materials extracted from hazelnut husk and hazelnut husk amended soils

This study was carried out to determine effects of composted hazelnut husk (CHH) on some chemical properties of soil and soil humic acid (HA). Compost application increases organic matter (OM) content of the soil considerably, OM value of 3.18% became 3.89% in 3 years time interval. Before application of compost, the soil pH was found to be 5.37, while after compost application it became 5.61. FTIR characteristics of humic acid/humic acid-like materials extracted from the original hazelnut husk, composted hazelnut husk and composted hazelnut husk amended soil have been investigated. C and O content of humic acid-like/humic acid materials were in the range of 41.4–50.8% and 37.8–50.5%, respectively. The N content of the humic acid/humic acid-like materials are in the expected range for humic materials which is 2–6%. Comparison of FTIR spectra of hazelnut husk and composted hazelnut husk humic acid-like fractions shows that both exhibit similar but not identical series of IR bands indicating the presence of the same functional groups in both samples. The only difference in the spectra seemed to be a decrement in the peak intensities of composted sample compared to uncomposted one. The similar differentiation of the intensities of IR bands of compost applied soil sample has also been observed. The FTIR spectral results show that the characteristics of composted material tend to become similar to that of soil humic acids characteristics in time.     

秦岭南坡东段油松人工林生态系统碳、氮储量及其分配格局

研究秦岭南坡东段8、25、35、42和61年生油松人工林碳、氮储量和分配格局.结果表明: 油松人工林不同林龄乔木层碳、氮含量为441.40～526.21和3.13～3.99 g·kg^-1,灌木层为426.06～447.25和10.62～12.45 g·kg^-1,草本层为301.37～401.52和10.35～13.33 g·kg^-1,枯落物层为382.83～424.71和8.69～11.90 g·kg^-1,土壤层(0～100 cm)为1.51～18.17和0.29～1.45 g·kg^-1.树干和树枝分别是乔木层的主要碳库和氮库,占乔木层碳储量的48.5%～62.7%和氮储量的39.2%～48.4%.林龄对生态系统碳、氮储量均有显著影响.生态系统碳储量随林龄增加而增加,35年时达最大值146.06 t·hm^-2,成熟后碳储量有所下降.5个林龄段油松林生态系统氮储量的最大值为25年时的10.99 t·hm^-2.植被层平均碳、氮储量分别为45.33 t·hm^-2和568.55 kg·hm^-2,土壤层平均碳、氮储量分别为73.12和8.57 t·hm^-2,且土壤层中碳、氮的积累具有明显的表层富集现象.研究区油松人工林生态系统碳、氮储量主要分布在土壤层,其次为乔木层.生态系统碳储量空间分配格局为:土壤层(64.1%)＞乔木层(30.0%)＞灌草层和枯落物层(5.9%),氮储量为土壤层(93.2%)＞乔木层(5.3%)＞灌草层和枯落物层(1.5%).     

长期垄作稻田腐殖质稳定碳同位素丰度(δ13C)分布特征

研究了四川盆地丘陵区连续16年垄（宽垄）作稻田土壤稳定碳库腐殖质组分的稳定碳同位素(δ¹³C)分布特征.结果表明： 稻田土壤有机碳含量为宽垄作＞垄作＞水旱轮作.腐殖质碳以胡敏素为主,占土壤碳含量的21%～30%,提取碳以胡敏酸为主,分别占土壤有机碳和腐殖质的17%～21%和38%～65%.土壤有机碳的δ¹³C值介于-27.9‰～-25.6‰,20～40 cm和0～5 cm土壤有机碳δ¹³C值之差约为1.9‰.土壤胡敏酸δ¹³C值比土壤有机碳低1‰～2‰,更接近于油菜和水稻秸秆及根系的δ¹³C值.土壤富里酸δ¹³C值分别较土壤有机碳和胡敏酸高2‰和4‰.耕作层和犁底层胡敏素δ¹³C值分别介于-23.7‰～-24.9‰和-22.6‰～-24.2‰,δ¹³C值的变化反映了耕层中腐殖质的新老混合现象.各有机组分δ¹³C值递减顺序为：胡敏素＞富里酸＞土壤有机碳＞稻草（油菜）残体＞胡敏酸.长期水稻种植有利于增加土壤有机碳含量,同时,耕作方式影响土壤腐殖质δ¹³C在耕作层和犁底层中的分布格局.     

Investigating the effects of anaerobic and aerobic post-treatment on quality and stability of organic fraction of municipal solid waste as soil amendment

The use of OFMSW for biogas and compost production is considered as a sustainable strategy in saving valuable landfill space while producing valuable product for soil application. This study examines the effects of anaerobic and aerobic post-treatment of OFMSW on the stability of anaerobic digestate and compost and soil quality using seed germination tests. Anaerobic digestion of OFMSW was carried out for fifteen days after which the residual anaerobic digestate was subjected to aerobic post-treatment for seventy days. Seed germination tests showed that fresh feedstock and digestates collected during anaerobic digestion and during the early stages of aerobic post-treatment were phytotoxic. However, phytotoxic effects were not observed in soils amended with the fully stabilised anaerobic digestate compost, ADC. It was also found that seed germination increases with dilution and incubation time, suggesting that lower soil application rates and longer lag periods between soil application of ADC and planting can reduce the amount of biodegradable organics in the ADC, thus enhancing the benefits of ADC as soil amendment.     

Microbial characterization during composting of municipal solid waste

This study investigates the prevailing physico-chemical conditions and microbial community; mesophilic bacteria, yeasts and filamentous fungi, bacterial spores, Salmonella and Shigella as well as faecal indicator bacteria: total coliforms, faecal coliforms and faecal Streptococci, present in a compost of municipal solid waste. Investigations were conducted in a semi-industrial pilot plant using a moderate aeration during the composting process. Our results showed that: (i) auto-sterilization induced by relatively high temperatures (60–55°C) caused a significant change in bacterial communities. For instance, Escherichia coli and faecal Streptococci populations decreased, respectively, from 2×10⁷ to 3.1×10³ and 10⁷ to 1.5×10³ cells/g waste dry weight (WDW); yeasts and filamentous fungi decreased from 4.5×10⁶ to 2.6×10³ cells/g WDW and mesophilic bacteria were reduced from 5.8×10⁹ to 1.8×10⁷ bacteria/g WDW. On the other hand, the number of bacterial spores increased at the beginning of the composting process, but after the third week their number decreased notably; (ii) Salmonella disappeared completely from compost by the 25th day as soon as the temperature reached 60°C; and (iii) the bacterial population increased gradually during the cooling phase. While Staphylococci seemed to be the dominant bacteria during the mesophilic phase and at the beginning of the thermophilic phase, bacilli predominated during the remainder of the composting cycle. The appearance of gram-negative rods (opportunistic pathogens) during the cooling phase may represent a serious risk for the sanitary quality of the finished product intended for agronomic reuse. Compost sonication for about 3 min induced the inactivation of delicate bacteria, in particular gram-negatives. By contrast, gram-positive bacteria, especially micrococcus, spores of bacilli, and fungal propagules survived, and reached high concentrations in the compost.     

Effect of Ramadan on the diurnal variation in short-term high power output

This study examined the effects of Ramadan fasting on anaerobic performances and their diurnal fluctuations. In a balanced and randomized study design, 12 subjects were measured for maximal power (P_max; force-velocity test), peak power (P_peak), and mean power (P_mean) with the Wingate test at 07:00, 17:00, and 21:00 h on four different occasions: one week before Ramadan (BR), the second week of Ramadan (SWR), the fourth week of Ramadan (ER), and two weeks after Ramadan (AR). There was an interval of 28 h between any two successive tests. Oral temperature was measured before each test. Under each condition, the results showed a time-of-day effect on oral temperature. Analysis of variance revealed a significant (Ramadan×time-of-day of test) interaction effect on P_max. This variable improved significantly from morning to evening before Ramadan (1.1±0.2 W · kg^-1), during the second week of Ramadan (0.6±0.2 W · kg^-1), and two weeks after the end of Ramadan (0.9±0.2 W · kg^-1). However, daily fluctuations disappeared during the fourth week of Ramadan. For P_peak and P_mean, there was no significant Ramadan×test-time interaction. These variables improved significantly from morning to evening before Ramadan ([1±0.3 W · kg^-1] for P_peak and [1.7±1.6 W · kg^-1] for P_mean) and in the second week of Ramadan ([0.9±0.6 W · kg^-1] for P_peak and [1.7±1.5 W · kg^-1] for P_mean). However, they were not affected by time-of-day in the fourth week of Ramadan. Considering the effect of Ramadan on anaerobic performances, in comparison with before Ramadan, no significant difference was observed during Ramadan at 07:00 h. The variables were significantly lower in the second week of Ramadan and in the fourth week of Ramadan at 17:00 h and 21:00 h. P_mean was not affected during the second week of Ramadan. In conclusion, the time-of-day effect on anaerobic power variables tends to disappear during Ramadan. In comparison with the period before Ramadan, anaerobic performances were unaffected in the morning but impaired in the evening during Ramadan.     

Topical delivery of retinyl ascorbate: 4. Comparative anti-oxidant activity towards DPPH

The free radical scavenging properties of retinyl ascorbate (RA-AsA) were determined by monitoring the decomposition of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) as a function of time and in comparison with ascorbic acid (AsA), ascorbic acid palmitate (AsA-Pal), retinoic acid (RA), retinol (ROL) and retinol palmitate (Rol-Pal). The rate constant of RA-AsA (mean₃±SD) was 4.9±0.3 M^-1 s^-1, and indicated greater potency as an antioxidant compared to the rest of the test compounds (AsA 3.4±0.4 M^-1 s^-1, AsA-Pal, 2.9±0.2 M^-1 s^-1, RA 1.4±0.3 M^-1 s^-1, ROL 1.3±0.1 M^-1 s^-1, Rol-Pal exhibited insignificant activity). The decomposition rate constant of DPPH, 5±0.6 × 10^-8 M^-1 s^-1, in ethanol and BHA, 154±3 M^-1 s^-1 were both used as control. The compound RA-2-carboxy-2-hydroxy-ethanoate was isolated by prep-TLC and was identified, by ¹³C and ¹HNMR spectroscopy, as the major by-product from the reaction of RA-AsA with DPPH, which was also found to be potent antioxidant, 2.1±0.2 M^-1 s^-1. This suggests that oxidation of AsA moiety did not lead to the production of erythrulose species, which could cause deleterious modifications of cellular proteins.     

铲草和施肥对降香黄檀与印度檀香混交林土壤氮素矿化淋溶的影响

珍贵树种降香黄檀与印度檀香混交种植是当前华南地区人工林发展的一种重要模式.本研究设置对照(不做处理)、铲草、施肥、铲草+施肥4个处理,研究抚育措施对林地土壤净矿化速率、净硝化速率、净铵化速率和氮素淋溶速率的影响.结果表明:4个处理0~10 cm土层在春、秋季有最大净氮矿化速率,分别为18.92、18.13 mg·kg^-1·month^-1;在春、秋季有最大硝化速率,分别为20.35、18.85 mg·kg^-1·month^-1;夏、冬季有最大铵化速率,分别为0.22、0.26 mg·kg^-1·month^-1;秋季的氮素淋溶最严重,为15.98 mg·kg^-1·month^-1,全年最大淋溶为86.69 mg·kg^-1.铲草、施肥、铲草+施肥都在一定程度上抑制了土壤氮的净矿化和硝化速率,铲草、施肥、铲草+施肥处理年氮矿化量分别下降26.2%、16.1%、6.3%,年氮硝化量分别下降17.1%、16.6%、1.4%,同时也抑制了土壤铵态氮的累积.铲草、施肥、铲草+施肥处理全年氮素淋溶量依次减少25.2%、8.6%、6.1%.相对于铲草、施肥、铲草+施肥抚育措施,季节因素对土壤氮素矿化和淋溶过程的影响更显著.铲草、施肥、铲草+施肥措施在一定程度上抑制了土壤氮素硝化和铵化过程,减少了土壤氮素的矿化和淋溶损失量,有利于土壤肥力的保存和氮素的累积.     

Humic substances change during the co-composting process of municipal solid wastes and sewage sludge

The change of the degree of stability of compost during the composting process was a kind of guideline for our study. This stability was estimated by monitoring the chemical fractionation (extraction of humic and fulvic acids, and humin) during two cycles of composting. Change of humin (H), humic-like acid carbon (CHA) and fulvic-like acid carbon (CFA) fractions during the composting process of municipal solid wastes were investigated using two windrows W1 (100% of municipal solid wastes) and W2 (60% of municipal solid wastes and 40% of dried sewage sludge). Humin and fulvic acid fractions in the two windrows decreased since the start of composting process and tend to stabilize. At the end of composting process, humic acid fraction is more important in the windrow without sludge (W1) than the one with sludge (W2). The humification indexes used in this study showed that the humic-like acid carbon fraction production takes place largely during the phase of temperature increase (thermophilic phase), and it appeared very active in the windrow W2. At the end of composting process, the E₄/E₆ ratio value indicated that the compost of W1 is more mature than the compost of W2. The humification ratio (HR) allowed a correct estimation of compost organic matter stabilization level.     

Microbial degradation and humification of the lawn care pesticide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid during the composting of yard trimmings.

The fate of the widely used lawn care herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) during the composting of yard trimmings consisting of primarily leaves and grass is an important unexplored question. In this study, we determined the extent of 2,4-D mineralization, incorporation into humic matter, volatilization, and sorption during the composting of yard trimmings. Yard trimmings (2:1 [wt/wt] leaves-grass) were amended with 14C-ring-labeled 2,4-D (17 mg/kg of dry weight) and composted in a temperature-controlled laboratory scale compost system. During composting, thermophilic microbes were numerically dominant, reaching a maximum of 2 x 10(11)/g. At the end of composting, 46% of the organic matter (OM) present in the yard trimmings was lost and the compost was stable, with an oxygen uptake rate of 0.09 mg of O2 per g of OM per h, and was well humified (humification index, 0.39). Mineralization of the OM temporally paralleled mineralization of 2,4-D. In the final compost, 47% of the added 2,4-D carbon was mineralized, about 23% was complexed with high-molecular-weight humic acids, and about 20% was not extractable (humin fraction). Less than 1% of the added 14C was present in water expressed from the finished compost, suggesting a low potential for leaching of 2,4-D. Very little volatilization of 2,4-D occurred during composting. It is of interest that our results indicate active mineralization of 2,4-D at composting temperatures of 60 degrees C because microbial 2,4-D degradation at thermophilic temperatures has not been previously documented.     

Biodegradation of TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) by Phanerochaete chrysosporium

Extensive biodegradation of TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) by the white rot fungus Phanerochaete chrysosporium was observed. At an initial concentration of 1.3 mg/liter, 35.4 +/- 3.6% of the [14C]TNT was degraded to 14CO2 in 18 days. The addition of glucose 12 days after the addition of TNT did not stimulate mineralization, and, after 18 days of incubation with TNT only, about 3.3% of the initial TNT could be recovered. Mineralization of [14C]TNT adsorbed on soil was also examined. Ground corncobs served as the nutrient for slow but sustained degradation of [14C]TNT to 14CO2 such that 6.3 +/- 0.6% of the [14C]TNT initially present was converted to 14CO2 during the 30-day incubation period. Mass balance analysis of liquid cultures and of soil-corncob cultures revealed that polar [14C]TNT metabolites are formed in both systems, and high-performance liquid chromatography analyses revealed that less than 5% of the radioactivity remained as undegraded [14C]TNT following incubation with the fungus in soil or liquid cultures. When the concentration of TNT in cultures (both liquid and soil) was adjusted to contamination levels that might be found in the environment, i.e., 10,000 mg/kg in soil and 100 mg/liter in water, mineralization studies showed that 18.4 +/- 2.9% and 19.6 +/- 3.5% of the initial TNT was converted to 14CO2 in 90 days in soil and liquid cultures, respectively. In both cases (90 days in water at 100 mg/liter and in soil at 10,000 mg/kg) approximately 85% of the TNT was degraded. These results suggest that this fungus may be useful for the decontamination of sites in the environment contaminated with TNT.