Evolution of vertebrate retinal photoreception

Recent findings shed light on the steps underlying the evolution of vertebrate photoreceptors and retina. Vertebrate ciliary photoreceptors are not as wholly distinct from invertebrate rhabdomeric photoreceptors as is sometimes thought. Recent information on the phylogenies of ciliary and rhabdomeric opsins has helped in constructing the likely routes followed during evolution. Clues to the factors that led the early vertebrate retina to become invaginated can be obtained by combining recent knowledge about the origin of the pathway for dark re-isomerization of retinoids with knowledge of the inability of ciliary opsins to undergo photoreversal, along with consideration of the constraints imposed under the very low light levels in the deep ocean. Investigation of the origin of cell classes in the vertebrate retina provides support for the notion that cones, rods and bipolar cells all originated from a primordial ciliary photoreceptor, whereas ganglion cells, amacrine cells and horizontal cells all originated from rhabdomeric photoreceptors. Knowledge of the molecular differences between cones and rods, together with knowledge of the scotopic signalling pathway, provides an understanding of the evolution of rods and of the rods'' retinal circuitry. Accordingly, it has been possible to propose a plausible scenario for the sequence of evolutionary steps that led to the emergence of vertebrate photoreceptors and retina.     

Interplay between the molecular signals that control vertebrate limb development

Vertebrate limbs display three obvious axes of asymmetry. These three axes are referred to as proximal-distal (Pr-D; shoulder to digit tips), anterior-posterior (A-P; thumb to little finger), and dorsal-ventral (D-V; back of hand to palm). At a molecular level, it is now possible to define the signals that control patterning of each of the three axes of the developing limb. These signals do not work in isolation though but rather their activity must be integrated such that the various limb elements are coordinately formed with relation to these three axes. This review will provide an overview of the intricate medley amongst the molecular signals that serve to establish and coordinate patterning information along the three primary axes of the limb.     

A molecular view of onychophoran segmentation

This paper summarizes our current knowledge on the expression and assumed function of Drosophila and (other) arthropod segmentation gene orthologs in Onychophora, a closely related outgroup to Arthropoda. This includes orthologs of the so-called Drosophila segmentation gene cascade including the Hox genes, as well as other genetic factors and pathways involved in non-drosophilid arthropods.Open questions about and around the topic are addressed, such as the definition of segments in onychophorans, the unclear regulation of conserved expression patterns downstream of non-conserved factors, and the potential role of mesodermal patterning in onychophoran segmentation.     

Tissue-specific retinal proteins in vertebrate evolution

Studies have been made on water soluble antigens of the retina from man and some animals. In the bovine retina, immunochemical analysis reveals, apart from antigens with a broad and narrow interorganic specificity, organospecific alpha 1- and rho-globulins. Immunochemically, the bovine alpha 1-globulin is partially identical with the same protein of the human retina and completely identical to retinal antigens from cattle; rho-globulin is characterized as an interspecific antigen in man and mammals. Molecules of organospecific alpha 1-globulins from the retina of man and some animals (sheep, camel, horse, cow, pig) do not contain the determinants related to the retinal antigens from fishes, reptiles and birds. In human and mammalian retina, acid neurospecific alpha 1-glycoprotein was found which is topical of the cerebral tissue. Organospecific alpha 1-globulin of the bovine retina is located in the pigment epithelium, in the zone of outer and inner photoreceptor segments; organospecific rho-globulin is distributed in the outer synaptic layer of the retina.     

A novel application of metabolomics in vertebrate development

Many studies have demonstrated the functions of individual genes associated with embryogenesis and have determined the genome sequences of several organisms. Despite the availability of enormous amount of genetic information, dynamic changes that occur during embryogenesis have not yet been completely understood. In order to understand the dynamic processes involved in embryogenesis, we employed the metabolomic approach. The results of our study indicated that there is a close correlation between metabolomes and developmental stages. Our method enables the identification of embryonic stages using metabolomes as “fingerprints.” In this manner, we could successfully predict embryonic development on the basis of metabolomic fingerprints. This is the first report describing a model for predicting vertebrate development by using metabolomics.     

A molecular approach to the evolution of vertebrate paired appendages

Over the past few years, genes involved in the ontogenesis of tetrapod limbs have been Isolated and characterized. Some of the developmental mechanisms responsible for the morphogenesis of these complex structures can now be investigated through a new approach. In addition, these genes can serve as tools to re-evaluate some aspects of the long-standing question of the fin-to-limb transition. Comparative molecular developmental biology is providing new insight into the similarities and differences in the morphologies of these homologous structures.     

Cell-intrinsic regulators of proliferation in vertebrate retinal progenitors

The proliferative expansion of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) is a fundamental mechanism of growth during vertebrate retinal development. Over the past couple of years, significant progress has been made in identifying genes expressed in RPCs that are essential for their proliferation, and the molecular mechanisms are beginning to be resolved. In this review, we highlight recent studies that have identified regulatory components of the RPC cell cycle machinery and implicate a set of homeobox genes as key regulators of proliferative expansion in the retina.     

MicroRNAs in vertebrate development

The vertebrate genome contains hundreds of small non-coding 'microRNAs' that have been implicated in controlling the expression of potentially thousands of target genes. Presently, only a handful of these targets have been characterized. Recent reports of microRNA 'sensors', microRNA microarrays and the creation of vertebrates that lack all microRNA activity will aid in determining the roles played by microRNAs, and the genes that they regulate, during vertebrate development.     

A molecular view on pluripotent stem cells

Pluripotent stem cells are undifferentiated cells that are capable of differentiating to all three embryonic germ layers and their differentiated derivatives. They are transiently found during embryogenesis, in preimplantation embryos and fetal gonads, or as established cell lines. These unique cell types are distinguished by their wide developmental potential and by their ability to be propagated in culture indefinitely, without loosing their undifferentiated phenotype. This short review intends to give a general overview on the pluripotent nature of embryo-derived stem cells with a focus on human embryonic stem cells.     

Rhizobium phaseoli: A molecular genetics view

We have used molecular genetics techniques to analyze the structural and functional organization of genetic information ofRhizobium phaseoli, the symbiont of the common bean plantPhaseolus vulgaris. As in otherRhizobium species, the genome consists of the chromosome and plasmids of high molecular weight. Symbiotic determinants, nitrogen fixation genes as well as nodulation genes, are localized on a single replicon, the symbiotic (sym) plasmid. Thesym plasmid of differentR. phaseoli strains was transferred to anAgrobacterium tumefaciens strain cured of its native plasmids. In all cases, Agrobacterium transconjugants able to nodulate bean plants were obtained. Some of the transconjugants had the capacity to elicit an effective symbiosis. The genome ofR. phaseoli is complex, containing a large amount of reiterated DNA sequences. In mostR. pahseoli strains one of such reiterated DNA families corresponds to the nitrogenase structural genes (nif genes). A functional analysis of these genes suggested that the presence of reiteratednif genesis is related to the capacity of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the symbiotic state. The presence of several repeated sequences in the genome might provide sites for recombination, resulting in genomic rearrangements. By analyzing direct descendants of a single cell in the laboratory, evidence of frequent genomic rearrangements inR. phaseoli was found. We propose that genomic rearrangements constitute the molecular basis of the frequent variability and loss of symbiotic properties in different Rhizobium strains.     

Mandibular arch muscle identity is regulated by a conserved molecular process during vertebrate development

Vertebrate head muscles exhibit a highly conserved pattern of innervation and skeletal connectivity and yet it is unclear whether the molecular basis of their development is likewise conserved. Using the highly conserved expression of Engrailed 2 (En2) as a marker of identity in the dorsal mandibular muscles of zebrafish, we have investigated the molecular signals and tissues required for patterning these muscles. We show that muscle En2 expression is not dependent on signals from the adjacent neural tube, pharyngeal endoderm or axial mesoderm and that early identity of head muscles does not require bone morphogenetic pathway, Notch or Hedgehog (Hh) signalling. However, constrictor dorsalis En2 expression is completely lost after a loss of fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) signalling and we show that is true throughout head muscle development. These results suggest that head muscle identity is dependent on Fgf signalling. Data from experiments performed in chick suggest a similar regulation of En2 genes by Fgf signalling revealing a conserved mechanism for specifying head muscle identity. We present evidence that another key gene important in the development of mouse head muscles, Tbx1, is also critical for specification of mandibular arch muscle identity and that this is independent of Fgf signalling. These data imply that dorsal mandibular arch muscle identity in fish, chick and mouse is specified by a highly conserved molecular process despite differing functions of these muscles in different lineages.