HYPERSENSITIVE TO HIGH LIGHT1 Interacts with LOW QUANTUM YIELD OF PHOTOSYSTEM II1 and Functions in Protection of Photosystem II from Photodamage in Arabidopsis

Under high-irradiance conditions, plants must efficiently protect photosystem II (PSII) from damage. In this study, we demonstrate that the chloroplast protein HYPERSENSITIVE TO HIGH LIGHT1 (HHL1) is expressed in response to high light and functions in protecting PSII against photodamage. Arabidopsis thaliana hhl1 mutants show hypersensitivity to high light, drastically decreased PSII photosynthetic activity, higher nonphotochemical quenching activity, a faster xanthophyll cycle, and increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species following high-light exposure. Moreover, HHL1 deficiency accelerated the degradation of PSII core subunits under high light, decreasing the accumulation of PSII core subunits and PSII–light-harvesting complex II supercomplex. HHL1 primarily localizes in the stroma-exposed thylakoid membranes and associates with the PSII core monomer complex through direct interaction with PSII core proteins CP43 and CP47. Interestingly, HHL1 also directly interacts, in vivo and in vitro, with LOW QUANTUM YIELD OF PHOTOSYSTEM II1 (LQY1), which functions in the repair and reassembly of PSII. Furthermore, the hhl1 lqy1 double mutants show increased photosensitivity compared with single mutants. Taken together, these results suggest that HHL1 forms a complex with LQY1 and participates in photodamage repair of PSII under high light.     

MET1 Is a Thylakoid-Associated TPR Protein Involved in Photosystem II Supercomplex Formation and Repair in Arabidopsis

Photosystem II (PSII) requires constant disassembly and reassembly to accommodate replacement of the D1 protein. Here, we characterize Arabidopsis thaliana MET1, a PSII assembly factor with PDZ and TPR domains. The maize (Zea mays) MET1 homolog is enriched in mesophyll chloroplasts compared with bundle sheath chloroplasts, and MET1 mRNA and protein levels increase during leaf development concomitant with the thylakoid machinery. MET1 is conserved in C3 and C4 plants and green algae but is not found in prokaryotes. Arabidopsis MET1 is a peripheral thylakoid protein enriched in stroma lamellae and is also present in grana. Split-ubiquitin assays and coimmunoprecipitations showed interaction of MET1 with stromal loops of PSII core components CP43 and CP47. From native gels, we inferred that MET1 associates with PSII subcomplexes formed during the PSII repair cycle. When grown under fluctuating light intensities, the Arabidopsis MET1 null mutant (met1) showed conditional reduced growth, near complete blockage in PSII supercomplex formation, and concomitant increase of unassembled CP43. Growth of met1 in high light resulted in loss of PSII supercomplexes and accelerated D1 degradation. We propose that MET1 functions as a CP43/CP47 chaperone on the stromal side of the membrane during PSII assembly and repair. This function is consistent with the observed differential MET1 accumulation across dimorphic maize chloroplasts.     

Light-Harvesting Complex Stress-Related Proteins Catalyze Excess Energy Dissipation in Both Photosystems of Physcomitrella patens

Two LHC-like proteins, Photosystem II Subunit S (PSBS) and Light-Harvesting Complex Stress-Related (LHCSR), are essential for triggering excess energy dissipation in chloroplasts of vascular plants and green algae, respectively. The mechanism of quenching was studied in Physcomitrella patens, an early divergent streptophyta (including green algae and land plants) in which both proteins are active. PSBS was localized in grana together with photosystem II (PSII), but LHCSR was located mainly in stroma-exposed membranes together with photosystem I (PSI), and its distribution did not change upon high-light treatment. The quenched conformation can be preserved by rapidly freezing the high-light-treated tissues in liquid nitrogen. When using green fluorescent protein as an internal standard, 77K fluorescence emission spectra on isolated chloroplasts allowed for independent assessment of PSI and PSII fluorescence yield. Results showed that both photosystems underwent quenching upon high-light treatment in the wild type in contrast to mutants depleted of LHCSR, which lacked PSI quenching. Due to the contribution of LHCII, P. patens had a PSI antenna size twice as large with respect to higher plants. Thus, LHCII, which is highly abundant in stroma membranes, appears to be the target of quenching by LHCSR.     

Plant MicroRNAs Display Differential 3′ Truncation and Tailing Modifications That Are ARGONAUTE1 Dependent and Conserved Across Species

Plant small RNAs are 3′ methylated by the methyltransferase HUA1 ENHANCER1 (HEN1). In plant hen1 mutants, 3′ modifications of small RNAs, including oligo-uridylation (tailing), are associated with accelerated degradation of microRNAs (miRNAs). By sequencing small RNAs of the wild type and hen1 mutants from Arabidopsis thaliana, rice (Oryza sativa), and maize (Zea mays), we found 3′ truncation prior to tailing is widespread in these mutants. Moreover, the patterns of miRNA truncation and tailing differ substantially among miRNA families but are conserved across species. The same patterns are also observable in wild-type libraries from a broad range of species, only at lower abundances. ARGONAUTE (AGO1), even with defective slicer activity, can bind these truncated and tailed variants of miRNAs. An ago1 mutation in hen1 suppressed such 3′ modifications, indicating that they occur while miRNAs are in association with AGO1, either during or after RNA-induced silencing complex assembly. Our results showed AGO1-bound miRNAs are actively 3′ truncated and tailed, possibly reflecting the activity of cofactors acting in conserved patterns in miRNA degradation.     

Light-Harvesting Complex Protein LHCBM9 Is Critical for Photosystem II Activity and Hydrogen Production in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

Photosynthetic organisms developed multiple strategies for balancing light-harvesting versus intracellular energy utilization to survive ever-changing environmental conditions. The light-harvesting complex (LHC) protein family is of paramount importance for this function and can form light-harvesting pigment protein complexes. In this work, we describe detailed analyses of the photosystem II (PSII) LHC protein LHCBM9 of the microalga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in terms of expression kinetics, localization, and function. In contrast to most LHC members described before, LHCBM9 expression was determined to be very low during standard cell cultivation but strongly increased as a response to specific stress conditions, e.g., when nutrient availability was limited. LHCBM9 was localized as part of PSII supercomplexes but was not found in association with photosystem I complexes. Knockdown cell lines with 50 to 70% reduced amounts of LHCBM9 showed reduced photosynthetic activity upon illumination and severe perturbation of hydrogen production activity. Functional analysis, performed on isolated PSII supercomplexes and recombinant LHCBM9 proteins, demonstrated that presence of LHCBM9 resulted in faster chlorophyll fluorescence decay and reduced production of singlet oxygen, indicating upgraded photoprotection. We conclude that LHCBM9 has a special role within the family of LHCII proteins and serves an important protective function during stress conditions by promoting efficient light energy dissipation and stabilizing PSII supercomplexes.     

Nanodomains of Cytochrome b6f and Photosystem II Complexes in Spinach Grana Thylakoid Membranes

The cytochrome b₆f (cytb₆f) complex plays a central role in photosynthesis, coupling electron transport between photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I to the generation of a transmembrane proton gradient used for the biosynthesis of ATP. Photosynthesis relies on rapid shuttling of electrons by plastoquinone (PQ) molecules between PSII and cytb₆f complexes in the lipid phase of the thylakoid membrane. Thus, the relative membrane location of these complexes is crucial, yet remains unknown. Here, we exploit the selective binding of the electron transfer protein plastocyanin (Pc) to the lumenal membrane surface of the cytb₆f complex using a Pc-functionalized atomic force microscope (AFM) probe to identify the position of cytb₆f complexes in grana thylakoid membranes from spinach (Spinacia oleracea). This affinity-mapping AFM method directly correlates membrane surface topography with Pc-cytb₆f interactions, allowing us to construct a map of the grana thylakoid membrane that reveals nanodomains of colocalized PSII and cytb₆f complexes. We suggest that the close proximity between PSII and cytb₆f complexes integrates solar energy conversion and electron transfer by fostering short-range diffusion of PQ in the protein-crowded thylakoid membrane, thereby optimizing photosynthetic efficiency.     

Activation of the Stt7/STN7 Kinase through Dynamic Interactions with the Cytochrome b6f Complex

Photosynthetic organisms have the ability to adapt to changes in light quality by readjusting the cross sections of the light-harvesting systems of photosystem II (PSII) and photosystem I (PSI). This process, called state transitions, maintains the redox poise of the photosynthetic electron transfer chain and ensures a high photosynthetic yield when light is limiting. It is mediated by the Stt7/STN7 protein kinase, which is activated through the cytochrome b₆f complex upon reduction of the plastoquinone pool. Its probable major substrate, the light-harvesting complex of PSII, once phosphorylated, dissociates from PSII and docks to PSI, thereby restoring the balance of absorbed light excitation energy between the two photosystems. Although the kinase is known to be inactivated under high-light intensities, the molecular mechanisms governing its regulation remain unknown. In this study we monitored the redox state of a conserved and essential Cys pair of the Stt7/STN7 kinase and show that it forms a disulfide bridge. We could not detect any change in the redox state of these Cys during state transitions and high-light treatment. It is only after prolonged anaerobiosis that this disulfide bridge is reduced. It is likely to be mainly intramolecular, although kinase activation may involve a transient covalently linked kinase dimer with two intermolecular disulfide bonds. Using the yeast two-hybrid system, we have mapped one interaction site of the kinase on the Rieske protein of the cytochrome b₆f complex.Photosynthetic organisms are subjected to constant changes in light quality and quantity and need to adapt to these changes in order to optimize, on the one hand, their photosynthetic yield, and to minimize photo-oxidative damage on the other. The photosynthetic electron transfer chain consists of photosystem II (PSII), the plastoquinone (PQ) pool, the cytochrome b₆f complex (Cyt b₆f), plastocyanin, and photosystem I (PSI). All of these complexes and components are integrated or closely associated with the thylakoid membrane. The two antenna systems of PSII and PSI capture and direct the light excitation energy to the corresponding reaction centers in which a chlorophyll dimer is oxidized and charge separation occurs across the thylakoid membrane. These processes lead to the onset of electron flow from water on the donor side of PSII to ferredoxin on the acceptor side of PSI coupled with proton translocation across the thylakoid membrane. In order to sustain optimal electron flow along this electron transfer chain, the redox poise needs to be maintained under changing environmental conditions. Several mechanisms have evolved for the maintenance of this redox balance. In the case of over-reduction of the acceptor side of PSI, excess electrons can reduce molecular oxygen through the Mehler reaction to superoxide, which is then converted to hydrogen peroxide by a plastid superoxide dismutase and ultimately to water by a peroxidase (Asada, 2000). Over-reduction of the PQ pool can be alleviated by PTOX, the plastid terminal oxidase responsible for oxidizing PQH₂ to form hydrogen peroxide, which is subsequently converted to water (Carol et al., 1999; Cournac et al., 2000; Wu et al., 1999).In addition to these electron sinks that prevent the over-reduction of the electron transfer chain, the photosynthetic apparatus is able to maintain the redox poise of the PQ pool by readjusting the relative cross sections of the light harvesting systems of PSII and PSI upon unequal excitation of the two photosystems. This readjustment can occur both in the short term through state transitions and in the long term by changing the stoichiometry between PSII and PSI (Bonaventura and Myers, 1969; Murata, 1969; Pfannschmidt, 2003). State transitions occur because of perturbations of the redox state of the PQ pool due to unequal excitation of PSII and PSI, limitations in electron acceptors downstream of PSI, and/or in CO₂ availability. Excess excitation of PSII relative to PSI leads to reduction of the PQ pool and thus favors the docking of PQH₂ to the Qo site of the Cyt b₆f complex. This process activates the Stt7/STN7 protein kinase (Vener et al., 1997; Zito et al., 1999), which is closely associated with this complex and leads to the phosphorylation of some LHCII proteins and to their detachment from PSII and binding to PSI (Depège et al., 2003; Lemeille et al., 2009). Although both Lhcb1 and Lhcb2 are phosphorylated, only the phosphorylated form of Lhcb2 is associated with PSI whereas phosphorylated Lhcb1 is excluded from this complex (Longoni et al., 2015). This state corresponds to state 2. In this way the change in the relative antenna sizes of the two photosystems restores the redox poise of the PQ pool. The process is reversible as over-excitation of PSI relative to PSII leads to the oxidation of the PQ pool and to the inactivation of the kinase. Under these conditions, phosphorylated LHCII associated with PSI is dephosphorylated by the PPH1/TAP38 phosphatase (Pribil et al., 2010; Shapiguzov et al., 2010) and returns to PSII (state 1). It should be noted, however, that a strict causal link between LHCII phosphorylation and its migration from PSII to PSI has been questioned recently by the finding that some phosphorylated LHCII remains associated with PSII supercomplexes and that LHCII serves as antenna for both photosystems under most natural light conditions (Drop et al., 2014; Wientjes et al., 2013).State transitions are important at low light but do not occur under high light because the LHCII kinase is inactivated under these conditions (Schuster et al., 1986). It was proposed that inactivation of the kinase is mediated by the ferredoxin-thioredoxin system and that a disulfide bond in the kinase rather than in the substrate may be the target site of thioredoxin (Rintamäki et al., 1997, 2000). Analysis of the Stt7/STN7 protein sequences indeed reveals the presence of two conserved Cys residues close to the N-terminal end of this kinase, which are conserved in all species examined and both are essential for kinase activity although they are located outside of the kinase catalytic domain (Fig. 1) (Depège et al., 2003; Lemeille et al., 2009). Based on protease protection studies, this model of the Stt7/STN7 kinase proposes that the N-terminal end of the kinase is on the lumen side of the thylakoid membrane separated from the catalytic domain on the stromal side by an unusual transmembrane domain containing several Pro residues (Lemeille et al., 2009). This configuration of the kinase allows its catalytic domain to act on the substrate sites of the LHCII proteins, which are exposed to the stroma. Although in this model the conserved Cys residues in the lumen are on the opposite side from the stromal thioredoxins, it is possible that thiol-reducing equivalents are transferred across the thylakoid membrane through the CcdA and Hcf164 proteins, which have been shown to operate in this way during heme and Cyt b₆f assembly (Lennartz et al., 2001; Page et al., 2004) or through the LTO1 protein (Du et al., 2015; Karamoko et al., 2011).Figure 1.Conserved Cys in the Stt7/STN7 kinase. Alignment of the sequences of the Stt7/STN protein kinase from Selaginella moelendorffii (Sm), Physcomitrella patens (Pp), Oryza sativa (Os), Populus trichocarpa (Pt), Arabidopsis thaliana (At), Chlamydomonas reinhardtii ...Here we have examined the redox state of the Stt7/STN7 kinase during state transitions and after illumination with high light to test the proposed model. We find that the Stt7/STN7 kinase contains a disulfide bridge that appears to be intramolecular and maintained not only during state transitions but also in high light when the kinase is inactive. Although these results suggest at first sight that the disulfide bridge of Stt7/STN7 is maintained during its activation and inactivation, we propose that a transient opening of this bridge occurs during the activation process followed by the formation of an intermolecular disulfide bridge and the appearance of a short-lived, covalently linked kinase dimer.     

Antiphase Light and Temperature Cycles Affect PHYTOCHROME B-Controlled Ethylene Sensitivity and Biosynthesis,Limiting Leaf Movement and Growth of Arabidopsis

In the natural environment, days are generally warmer than the night, resulting in a positive day/night temperature difference (+DIF). Plants have adapted to these conditions, and when exposed to antiphase light and temperature cycles (cold photoperiod/warm night [−DIF]), most species exhibit reduced elongation growth. To study the physiological mechanism of how light and temperature cycles affect plant growth, we used infrared imaging to dissect growth dynamics under +DIF and −DIF in the model plant Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). We found that −DIF altered leaf growth patterns, decreasing the amplitude and delaying the phase of leaf movement. Ethylene application restored leaf growth in −DIF conditions, and constitutive ethylene signaling mutants maintain robust leaf movement amplitudes under −DIF, indicating that ethylene signaling becomes limiting under these conditions. In response to −DIF, the phase of ethylene emission advanced 2 h, but total ethylene emission was not reduced. However, expression analysis on members of the 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase ethylene biosynthesis gene family showed that ACS2 activity is specifically suppressed in the petiole region under −DIF conditions. Indeed, petioles of plants under −DIF had reduced ACC content, and application of ACC to the petiole restored leaf growth patterns. Moreover, acs2 mutants displayed reduced leaf movement under +DIF, similar to wild-type plants under −DIF. In addition, we demonstrate that the photoreceptor PHYTOCHROME B restricts ethylene biosynthesis and constrains the −DIF-induced phase shift in rhythmic growth. Our findings provide a mechanistic insight into how fluctuating temperature cycles regulate plant growth.In nature, during the day (light), temperatures are usually higher than during the night (dark). Correspondingly, most plants show optimal growth under such synchronous light and temperature cycles. Increasing the difference between day and night temperature (+DIF) results in increased elongation growth in various species, a phenomenon referred to as thermoperiodism (Went, 1944). The opposite regime, when the temperature of the day (DT) is lower than the temperature of the night (NT), is called −DIF (negative DT/NT difference). Under −DIF conditions, the elongation growth of stems and leaves of various plant species is reduced (Maas and van Hattum, 1998; Carvalho et al., 2002; Thingnaes et al., 2003). Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants grown under −DIF (DT/NT 12°C/22°C) displayed a reduction in leaf elongation of approximately 20% compared with the control (DT/NT 22°C/12°C; Thingnaes et al., 2003). −DIF is frequently applied in horticulture to produce crops with a desirable compact architecture without the need for growth-retarding chemicals (Myster and Moe, 1995). Despite the economic importance of the application of such temperature regimes in horticulture, the mechanistic basis of the growth reduction under −DIF is still poorly understood.Previously, it was demonstrated that −DIF affects phytohormone signaling in plants. In pea (Pisum sativum), for instance, the −DIF growth reduction correlated with increased catabolism of the phytohormone GA (Stavang et al., 2005). In contrast to pea, active GA levels did not decrease in response to −DIF in Arabidopsis (Thingnaes et al., 2003). On the other hand, the −DIF growth response in Arabidopsis was associated with reduced auxin levels (Thingnaes et al., 2003). The photoreceptor PHYTOCHROME B (PHYB) has been shown to be important for the response to −DIF, as phyB mutants of Arabidopsis (Thingnaes et al., 2008) and cucumber (Cucumis sativus; Patil et al., 2003) are insensitive to −DIF.In this work, the growth-related movement of mature Arabidopsis rosette leaves was analyzed under control (+DIF) and −DIF conditions. Under −DIF, the amplitude of leaf movement was decreased and the phase of movement was later, compared with control plants. The altered leaf growth patterns observed in −DIF could be restored by the application of ethylene. −DIF reduced the expression of 1-AMINOCYCLOPROPANE-1-CARBOXYLIC ACID SYNTHASE2 (ACS2) in the petiole, which correlated with reduced 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) levels and decreased amplitude and delayed phase of leaf movement. Our results indicate that local ACS activity plays an important biological role, despite the fact that ethylene is a gaseous and fast-diffusing hormone. In addition, we demonstrate that in the phyB9 mutant, the phase of leaf movement is almost fully temperature entrained. Finally, ethylene levels and sensitivity are increased in phyB9, suggesting a role for PHYB in constraining temperature-induced shifts in the phase of leaf movement and dampening of leaf movement amplitude by controlling ethylene production and sensitivity.     

Constitutively Active Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Versions Reveal Functions of Arabidopsis MPK4 in Pathogen Defense Signaling

Plant mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) are involved in important processes, including stress signaling and development. In a functional yeast screen, we identified mutations that render Arabidopsis thaliana MAPKs constitutively active (CA). Importantly, CA-MAPKs maintain their specificity toward known activators and substrates. As a proof-of-concept, Arabidopsis MAPK4 (MPK4) function in plant immunity was investigated. In agreement with the phenotype of mpk4 mutants, CA-MPK4 plants were compromised in pathogen-induced salicylic acid accumulation and disease resistance. MPK4 activity was found to negatively regulate pathogen-associated molecular pattern-induced reactive oxygen species production but had no impact on callose deposition, indicating that CA-MPK4 allows discriminating between processes regulated by MPK4 activity from processes indirectly affected by mpk4 mutation. Finally, MPK4 activity was also found to compromise effector-triggered immunity conditioned by the Toll Interleukin-1 Receptor–nucleotide binding (NB)–Leu-rich repeat (LRR) receptors RPS4 and RPP4 but not by the coiled coil–NB-LRR receptors RPM1 and RPS2. Overall, these data reveal important insights on how MPK4 regulates plant defenses and establishes that CA-MAPKs offer a powerful tool to analyze the function of plant MAPK pathways.     

Pipecolic Acid,an Endogenous Mediator of Defense Amplification and Priming,Is a Critical Regulator of Inducible Plant Immunity

Metabolic signals orchestrate plant defenses against microbial pathogen invasion. Here, we report the identification of the non-protein amino acid pipecolic acid (Pip), a common Lys catabolite in plants and animals, as a critical regulator of inducible plant immunity. Following pathogen recognition, Pip accumulates in inoculated Arabidopsis thaliana leaves, in leaves distal from the site of inoculation, and, most specifically, in petiole exudates from inoculated leaves. Defects of mutants in AGD2-LIKE DEFENSE RESPONSE PROTEIN1 (ALD1) in systemic acquired resistance (SAR) and in basal, specific, and β-aminobutyric acid–induced resistance to bacterial infection are associated with a lack of Pip production. Exogenous Pip complements these resistance defects and increases pathogen resistance of wild-type plants. We conclude that Pip accumulation is critical for SAR and local resistance to bacterial pathogens. Our data indicate that biologically induced SAR conditions plants to more effectively synthesize the phytoalexin camalexin, Pip, and salicylic acid and primes plants for early defense gene expression. Biological priming is absent in the pipecolate-deficient ald1 mutants. Exogenous pipecolate induces SAR-related defense priming and partly restores priming responses in ald1. We conclude that Pip orchestrates defense amplification, positive regulation of salicylic acid biosynthesis, and priming to guarantee effective local resistance induction and the establishment of SAR.     

The Arabidopsis Malectin-Like Leucine-Rich Repeat Receptor-Like Kinase IOS1 Associates with the Pattern Recognition Receptors FLS2 and EFR and Is Critical for Priming of Pattern-Triggered Immunity

Plasma membrane-localized pattern recognition receptors such as FLAGELLIN SENSING2 (FLS2) and EF-TU RECEPTOR (EFR) recognize microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) to activate the first layer of plant immunity termed pattern-triggered immunity (PTI). A reverse genetics approach with genes responsive to the priming agent β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) revealed IMPAIRED OOMYCETE SUSCEPTIBILITY1 (IOS1) as a critical PTI player. Arabidopsis thaliana ios1 mutants were hypersusceptible to Pseudomonas syringae bacteria. Accordingly, ios1 mutants demonstrated defective PTI responses, notably delayed upregulation of PTI marker genes, lower callose deposition, and mitogen-activated protein kinase activities upon bacterial infection or MAMP treatment. Moreover, Arabidopsis lines overexpressing IOS1 were more resistant to P. syringae and demonstrated a primed PTI response. In vitro pull-down, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, coimmunoprecipitation, and mass spectrometry analyses supported the existence of complexes between the membrane-localized IOS1 and FLS2 and EFR. IOS1 also associated with BRASSINOSTEROID INSENSITIVE1-ASSOCIATED KINASE1 (BAK1) in a ligand-independent manner and positively regulated FLS2/BAK1 complex formation upon MAMP treatment. Finally, ios1 mutants were defective in BABA-induced resistance and priming. This work reveals IOS1 as a regulatory protein of FLS2- and EFR-mediated signaling that primes PTI activation upon bacterial elicitation.     

Structural Characterization of Arabidopsis Leaf Arabinogalactan Polysaccharides

Proteins decorated with arabinogalactan (AG) have important roles in cell wall structure and plant development, yet the structure and biosynthesis of this polysaccharide are poorly understood. To facilitate the analysis of biosynthetic mutants, water-extractable arabinogalactan proteins (AGPs) were isolated from the leaves of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) plants and the structure of the AG carbohydrate component was studied. Enzymes able to hydrolyze specifically AG were utilized to release AG oligosaccharides. The released oligosaccharides were characterized by high-energy matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-collision-induced dissociation mass spectrometry and polysaccharide analysis by carbohydrate gel electrophoresis. The Arabidopsis AG is composed of a β-(1→3)-galactan backbone with β-(1→6)-d-galactan side chains. The β-(1→6)-galactan side chains vary in length from one to over 20 galactosyl residues, and they are partly substituted with single α-(1→3)-l-arabinofuranosyl residues. Additionally, a substantial proportion of the β-(1→6)-galactan side chain oligosaccharides are substituted at the nonreducing termini with single 4-O-methyl-glucuronosyl residues via β-(1→6)-linkages. The β-(1→6)-galactan side chains are occasionally substituted with α-l-fucosyl. In the fucose-deficient murus1 mutant, AGPs lack these fucose modifications. This work demonstrates that Arabidopsis mutants in AGP structure can be identified and characterized. The detailed structural elucidation of the AG polysaccharides from the leaves of Arabidopsis is essential for insights into the structure-function relationships of these molecules and will assist studies on their biosynthesis.Arabinogalactans (AGs) are structurally complex large-branched polysaccharides attached to Hyp residues of many plant cell wall polypeptides. Most proteins glycosylated with AGs (AGPs) have both AG glycosylated domains (glycomodules) and structural or enzymatic domains. However, typical AGPs commonly contain less than 10% protein, suggesting that the AG is the functional part of the molecule (Clarke et al., 1979; Fincher et al., 1983; Kieliszewski and Lamport, 1994; Borner et al., 2003; Xu et al., 2008). Hyp is the most characteristic amino acid present at the glycosylated domain of the AGP, but other amino acids such as Ser, Ala, and Thr are also very common. Type II AG polysaccharides share common structural features based on a β-(1→3)-galactan backbone with β-(1→6)-linked galactan side chains and can be found both on AGPs and rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) pectin (Renard et al., 1991). The galactopyranosyl (Galp) residues can be further substituted with l-arabinofuranosyl (l-Araf) and occasionally also l-rhamnosyl (l-Rha), l-fucosyl (l-Fuc), and glucuronosyl (GlcA; with or without 4-O-methylation) residues (Tsumuraya et al., 1988; Tan et al., 2004; Tryfona et al., 2010). (Sugars mentioned in this work belong to the D-series unless otherwise stated.)The structure of AGs is poorly characterized, and this is mainly due to the great heterogeneity of glycan structures, not only between different AGPs but also even on the same peptide sequence in the same tissue (Estévez et al., 2006). The glycan structure can also be different depending on the developmental stage and tissue type (Tsumuraya et al., 1988), adding to the great heterogeneity of these molecules and therefore limiting their detailed characterization. Molecular and biochemical evidence has indicated that AGPs have specific functions during root formation, promotion of somatic embryogenesis (van Hengel et al., 2002), and attraction of pollen tubes to the style (Cheung et al., 1995). In addition, enhanced secretion efficiency or stability in the cell wall are properties that the AG may confer on the glycosylated protein (Borner et al., 2003). However, it has been difficult to differentiate one species of AGP from another in plant tissues and to assign specific roles to individual AGPs.l-Fuc is present in AGPs in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana; van Hengel et al., 2002), radish (Raphanus sativus; Nakamura et al., 1984; Tsumuraya et al., 1984a, 1984b, 1988), and several other dicot plants such as thyme (Thymus vulgaris; Chun et al., 2001) and celery (Apium graveolens; Lin et al., 2011). Reduction in l-Fuc by 40% in roots of murus1 (mur1) plants resulted in a decrease of 50% in root cell elongation, and eel lectin binding assays suggested that the phenotype was the result of alterations in the composition of root AGPs (van Hengel and Roberts, 2002). An α-(1→2)-fucosyltransferase (FUT) activity for radish primary root AGPs has been described, where an α-l-Araf-(1→3)-β-Galp-(1→6)-Galp trisaccharide was used as exogenous substrate acceptor to mimic an AG polysaccharide in the enzymatic assay (Misawa et al., 1996). Linkage analysis, reactivity with eel lectin, and digestion with α-(1→2)-fucosidase indicated that the l-Fuc residues added are terminal and attached via an α-linkage to the C-2 position of an adjacent l-Araf residue (Nakamura et al., 1984; Tsumuraya et al., 1984a, 1984b, 1988). Recently, Wu et al. (2010) identified AtFUT4 and AtFUT6 genes encoding FUT proteins specific to AGPs, but the structures of the fucosylated AG generated have not been fully characterized.To gain insights into the synthesis and function of plant AGPs, it would be useful to have mutants altered in their carbohydrate moieties. However, no AG-specific biosynthetic mutants have been characterized, and this, among other reasons, is due to the very limited knowledge of the structure of Arabidopsis AGs (Qu et al., 2008). Moreover, characterization of AG in candidate mutants remains challenging. Even though the structures of some AGs have been proposed using NMR and sugar linkage analyses, the complete structural elucidation of a native AG still remains a formidable task, because NMR spectroscopy and methylation analysis have been largely used to provide information regarding the amount and type of linkages between adjacent glycosyl residues, and AG heterogeneity can confound attempts to build complete structural models. Recently, a modular structure was proposed for AGs on heterologously expressed proteins in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum; Tan et al., 2010). Tan et al. (2010) proposed that approximately 15-residue repeating blocks of decorated β-(1→3)-trigalactosyl subunits connected by β-(1→6)-linkages were the building blocks of type II AG polysaccharides and concluded that these molecules are far less complex than commonly supposed. Most characterized β-(1→6)-galactan side chains in AGs are reported to be short, of one or two residues (Neukom and Markwalder, 1975; Gane et al., 1995; Gaspar et al., 2001). On the contrary, there are reports of long β-(1→6)-galactan side chains in radish root AGPs (Haque et al., 2005). Similarly, we recently found evidence that wheat (Triticum aestivum) flour endosperm AGP extracts contained long β-(1→6)-galactan side chains heavily substituted with l-Araf at C-3 (Tryfona et al., 2010). This partial structure of the carbohydrate component of wheat flour AGP isolated from water extracts of wheat endosperm was elucidated utilizing a combination of analytical approaches, such as the use of enzymes able to release oligosaccharides specifically from AGs, high-energy matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization (MALDI)-collision-induced dissociation (CID) mass spectrometry (MS), and polysaccharide analysis by carbohydrate gel electrophoresis (PACE; Tryfona et al., 2010). In this work, we applied these techniques to study the carbohydrate component of Arabidopsis leaf AGPs. AG-specific enzyme digestion products were analyzed by PACE and MS, allowing a partial structure to be proposed. We show that endogenous Arabidopsis leaf AG is composed of a β-(1→3)-galactan backbone with β-(1→6)-galactan side chains. These side chains are substituted with l-Araf residues via α-(1→3)-linkages and can vary in length from one up to at least 20 Galp residues. We also found that the β-(1→6)-galactan side chains are substituted mainly with 4-O-methyl-glucuronosyl (4-O-Me-GlcA) at their nonreducing termini, while occasional l-Fuc substitutions were also present via α-(1→2)-linkages on l-Araf residues. In addition, AG oligosaccharides from leaves of the mur1 mutant were identified, and their structures were compared with those isolated from wild-type plants.     

Trafficking of Vacuolar Proteins: The Crucial Role of Arabidopsis Vacuolar Protein Sorting 29 in Recycling Vacuolar Sorting Receptor

The retromer is involved in recycling lysosomal sorting receptors in mammals. A component of the retromer complex in Arabidopsis thaliana, vacuolar protein sorting 29 (VPS29), plays a crucial role in trafficking storage proteins to protein storage vacuoles. However, it is not known whether or how vacuolar sorting receptors (VSRs) are recycled from the prevacuolar compartment (PVC) to the trans-Golgi network (TGN) during trafficking to the lytic vacuole (LV). Here, we report that VPS29 plays an essential role in the trafficking of soluble proteins to the LV from the TGN to the PVC. maigo1-1 (mag1-1) mutants, which harbor a knockdown mutation in VPS29, were defective in trafficking of two soluble proteins, Arabidopsis aleurain-like protein (AALP):green fluorescent protein (GFP) and sporamin:GFP, to the LV but not in trafficking membrane proteins to the LV or plasma membrane or via the secretory pathway. AALP:GFP and sporamin:GFP in mag1-1 protoplasts accumulated in the TGN but were also secreted into the medium. In mag1-1 mutants, VSR1 failed to recycle from the PVC to the TGN; rather, a significant proportion was transported to the LV; VSR1 overexpression rescued this defect. Moreover, endogenous VSRs were expressed at higher levels in mag1-1 plants. Based on these results, we propose that VPS29 plays a crucial role in recycling VSRs from the PVC to the TGN during the trafficking of soluble proteins to the LV.     

The Coronatine Toxin of Pseudomonas syringae Is a Multifunctional Suppressor of Arabidopsis Defense

The phytotoxin coronatine (COR) promotes various aspects of Pseudomonas syringae virulence, including invasion through stomata, growth in the apoplast, and induction of disease symptoms. COR is a structural mimic of active jasmonic acid (JA) conjugates. Known activities of COR are mediated through its binding to the F-box–containing JA coreceptor CORONATINE INSENSITIVE1. By analyzing the interaction of P. syringae mutants with Arabidopsis thaliana mutants, we demonstrate that, in the apoplastic space of Arabidopsis, COR is a multifunctional defense suppressor. COR and the critical P. syringae type III effector HopM1 target distinct signaling steps to suppress callose deposition. In addition to its well-documented ability to suppress salicylic acid (SA) signaling, COR suppresses an SA-independent pathway contributing to callose deposition by reducing accumulation of an indole glucosinolate upstream of the activity of the PEN2 myrosinase. COR also suppresses callose deposition and promotes bacterial growth in coi1 mutant plants, indicating that COR may have multiple targets inside plant cells.