A putative flavin electron transport pathway is differentially utilized in Xenopus CRY1 and CRY2.

Xenopus laevis cryptochromes (xCRYs) can suppress xCLOCK/xBMAL1-mediated activation of a period E box-containing promoter. This suppression is a crucial part of the vertebrate circadian oscillator. Similar to CRYs in other species, as well as to the closely related photolyases, xCRYs have a conserved flavin binding domain. We show here that an intact flavin binding domain is required for normal function. However, it appears that each xCRY may utilize the bound flavin differently. Mutation in any of the three conserved tryptophan residues in the putative electron transport chain inhibits xCRY2b function, while only the mutation in the last of the three tryptophans significantly affects xCRY1 function. Although knockout studies in mice have suggested that CRY1 and CRY2 are not totally redundant, this is the first time that molecular/biochemical differences between CRY1 and CRY2 have been demonstrated. Both CRYs seem to require an intact flavin binding domain, suggesting that electron transport is important in their ability to suppress CLOCK/BMAL1 activation. However, only xCRY2b appears to depend on electron transport through the conserved tryptophan pathway.     

Animal type 1 cryptochromes. Analysis of the redox state of the flavin cofactor by site-directed mutagenesis

It has recently been realized that animal cryptochromes (CRYs) fall into two broad groups. Type 1 CRYs, the prototype of which is the Drosophila CRY, that is known to be a circadian photoreceptor. Type 2 CRYs, the prototypes of which are human CRY 1 and CRY 2, are known to function as core clock proteins. The mechanism of photosignaling by the Type 1 CRYs is not well understood. We recently reported that the flavin cofactor of the Type 1 CRY of the monarch butterfly may be in the form of flavin anion radical, FAD(*-), in vivo. Here we describe the purification and characterization of wild-type and mutant forms of Type 1 CRYs from fruit fly, butterfly, mosquito, and silk moth. Cryptochromes from all four sources contain FAD(ox) when purified, and the flavin is readily reduced to FAD(*-) by light. Interestingly, mutations that block photoreduction in vitro do not affect the photoreceptor activities of these CRYs, but mutations that reduce the stability of FAD(*-) in vitro abolish the photoreceptor function of Type 1 CRYs in vivo. Collectively, our data provide strong evidence for functional similarities of Type 1 CRYs across insect species and further support the proposal that FAD(*-) represents the ground state and not the excited state of the flavin cofactor in Type 1 CRYs.     

Tomato CRY1a plays a critical role in the regulation of phytohormone homeostasis,plant development,and carotenoid metabolism in fruits

Blue light photoreceptors, cryptochromes (CRYs), regulate multiple aspects of plant growth and development. However, our knowledge of CRYs is predominantly based on model plant Arabidopsis at early growth stage. In this study, we elucidated functions of CRY1a gene in mature tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants by using cry1a mutants and CRY1a‐overexpressing lines (OE‐CRY1a‐1 and OE‐CRY1a‐2). In comparison with wild‐type plants, cry1a mutants are relatively tall, accumulate low biomass, and bear more fruits, whereas OE‐CRY1a plants are short stature, and they not only flower lately but also bear less fruits. RNA‐seq, qRT‐PCR, and LC‐MS/MS analysis revealed that biosynthesis of gibberellin, cytokinin, and jasmonic acid was down‐regulated by CRY1a. Furthermore, DNA replication was drastically inhibited in leaves of OE‐CRY1a lines, but promoted in cry1a mutants with concomitant changes in the expression of cell cycle genes. However, CRY1a positively regulated levels of soluble sugars, phytofluene, phytoene, lycopene, and ß‐carotene in the fruits. The results indicate the important role of CRY1a in plant growth and have implications for molecular interventions of CRY1a aimed at improving agronomic traits.     

Light-induced conformational changes in full-length Arabidopsis thaliana cryptochrome

Cryptochromes (CRYs) are widespread flavoproteins with homology to photolyases (PHRs), a class of blue-light-activated DNA repair enzymes. Unlike PHRs, both plant and animal CRYs have a C-terminal domain. This cryptochrome C-terminal (CCT) domain mediates interactions with other proteins, while the PHR-like domain converts light energy into a signal via reduction and radical formation of the flavin adenine dinucleotide cofactor. However, the mechanism by which the PHR-like domain regulates the CCT domain is not known. Here, we applied the pulsed-laser-induced transient grating method to detect conformational changes induced by blue-light excitation of full-length Arabidopsis thaliana cryptochrome 1 (AtCRY1). A significant reduction in the diffusion coefficient of AtCRY1 was observed upon photoexcitation, indicating that a large conformational change occurs in this monomeric protein. AtCRY1 containing a single mutation (W324F) that abolishes an intra-protein electron transfer cascade did not exhibit this conformational change. Moreover, the conformational change was much reduced in protein lacking the CCT domain. Thus, we conclude that the observed large conformational changes triggered by light excitation of the PHR-like domain result from C-terminal domain rearrangement. This inter-domain modulation would be critical for CRYs' ability to transduce a blue-light signal into altered protein-protein interactions for biological activity. Lastly, we demonstrate that the transient grating technique provides a powerful method for the direct observation and understanding of photoreceptor dynamics.     

小地老虎隐花色素基因cryptochromel和cryptochrome2的克隆及mRNA表达分析

隐花色素（cryptochrome,cry）是一类广泛存在于生物体内的蓝光和近紫外光受体,介导生物对蓝光的一系列反应并能导引生物钟。本研究利用RT—PCR和RACE方法获得了小地老虎Agrotisypsiloncryl和cry2基因,分别命名为Aycryl和Aycry2。Aycryl基因（GenBankNo．JQ616846）读码框1587bp,编码528个氨基酸,预测分子量60．5ku,等电点6．68。Aycry2基因（GenBankNo．JQ616847）读码框2439bp,编码812个氨基酸,预测分子量92．1ku,等电点8．45。保守区分析表明：Aycryl和Aycry2均含有FAD结合位点的PHR区域和c末端保守区域。氨基酸序列比对分析表明,小地老虎的AyCRY1和AyCRY2分别与其它鳞翅目昆虫的CRY1和CRY2有很高的一致性,其中与棉铃虫HelicoverpaaFmigera的一致性最高,分别为89．5％和73．8％。NJ聚类分析结果表明昆虫含有两类CRY,即CRY1和CRY2,它们可分别以目为单位进行聚类,其中AyCRY1和AyCRY2分别与其它鳞翅目昆虫的CRY1和CRY2聚到一起。以室内饲养的小地老虎为材料,以3h为间隔检测了Aycry1和Aycry2的24h昼夜表达变化,结果表明这2个基因均表现出一定的昼夜节律性。Aycry1和Aycry2表达趋势白天高于晚上,表达峰值出现在ZT7（Zeitgebertime）。方差分析其昼夜波动差异不显著。     

小地老虎隐花色素基因cryptochrome1和cryptochrome2的克隆及mRNA表达分析

隐花色素(cryptochrome,cry)是一类广泛存在于生物体内的蓝光和近紫外光受体,介导生物对蓝光的一系列反应并能导引生物钟。本研究利用RT-PCR和RACE方法获得了小地老虎Agrotis ypsilon cry1和cry2基因,分别命名为Aycry1和Aycry2。Aycry1基因(GenBank No.JQ616846)读码框1 587 bp,编码528个氨基酸,预测分子量60.5 ku,等电点6.68。Aycry2基因(GenBank No.JQ616847)读码框2 439 bp,编码812个氨基酸,预测分子量92.1ku,等电点8.45。保守区分析表明:Aycry1和Aycry2均含有FAD结合位点的PHR区域和C末端保守区域。氨基酸序列比对分析表明,小地老虎的AyCRY1和AyCRY2分别与其它鳞翅目昆虫的CRY1和CRY2有很高的一致性,其中与棉铃虫Helicoverpa armigera的一致性最高,分别为89.5%和73.8%。NJ聚类分析结果表明昆虫含有两类CRY,即CRY1和CRY2,它们可分别以目为单位进行聚类,其中AyCRY1和AyCRY2分别与其它鳞翅目昆虫的CRY1和CRY2聚到一起。以室内饲养的小地老虎为材料,以3 h为间隔检测了Aycry1和Aycry2的24 h昼夜表达变化,结果表明这2个基因均表现出一定的昼夜节律性。Aycry1和Aycry2表达趋势白天高于晚上,表达峰值出现在ZT7(Zeitgeber time)。方差分析其昼夜波动差异不显著。     

Genetic Analysis of Circadian Responses to Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields in Drosophila melanogaster

The blue-light sensitive photoreceptor cryptochrome (CRY) may act as a magneto-receptor through formation of radical pairs involving a triad of tryptophans. Previous genetic analyses of behavioral responses of Drosophila to electromagnetic fields using conditioning, circadian and geotaxis assays have lent some support to the radical pair model (RPM). Here, we describe a new method that generates consistent and reliable circadian responses to electromagnetic fields that differ substantially from those already reported. We used the Schuderer apparatus to isolate Drosophila from local environmental variables, and observe extremely low frequency (3 to 50 Hz) field-induced changes in two locomotor phenotypes, circadian period and activity levels. These field-induced phenotypes are CRY- and blue-light dependent, and are correlated with enhanced CRY stability. Mutational analysis of the terminal tryptophan of the triad hypothesised to be indispensable to the electron transfer required by the RPM reveals that this residue is not necessary for field responses. We observe that deletion of the CRY C-terminus dramatically attenuates the EMF-induced period changes, whereas the N-terminus underlies the hyperactivity. Most strikingly, an isolated CRY C-terminus that does not encode the Tryptophan triad nor the FAD binding domain is nevertheless able to mediate a modest EMF-induced period change. Finally, we observe that hCRY2, but not hCRY1, transformants can detect EMFs, suggesting that hCRY2 is blue light-responsive. In contrast, when we examined circadian molecular cycles in wild-type mouse suprachiasmatic nuclei slices under blue light, there was no field effect. Our results are therefore not consistent with the classical Trp triad-mediated RPM and suggest that CRYs act as blue-light/EMF sensors depending on trans-acting factors that are present in particular cellular environments.     

Cellular metabolites modulate in vivo signaling of Arabidopsis cryptochrome-1

Cryptochromes are blue-light absorbing flavoproteins with multiple signaling roles. In plants, cryptochrome (cry1, cry2) biological activity has been linked to flavin photoreduction via an electron transport chain to the protein surface comprising 3 evolutionarily conserved tryptophan residues known as the ‘Trp triad.’ Mutation of any of the Trp triad residues abolishes photoreduction in isolated cryptochrome protein in vitro and therefore had been suggested as essential for electron transfer to the flavin. However, photoreduction of the flavin in Arabidopsis cry2 proteins occurs in vivo even with mutations in the Trp triad, indicating the existence of alternative electron transfer pathways to the flavin. These pathways are potentiated by metabolites in the intracellular environment including ATP, ADP, AMP, and NADH. In the present work we extend these observations to Arabidopsis cryptochrome 1 and demonstrate that Trp triad substitution mutants at W400F and W324F positions which are not photoreduced in vitro can be photoreduced in whole cell extracts, albeit with reduced efficiency. We further show that the flavin signaling state (FADH°) is stabilized in an in vivo context. These data illustrate that in vivo modulation by metabolites in the cellular environment may play an important role in cryptochrome signaling, and are discussed with respect to possible effects on the conformation of the C-terminal domain to generate the biologically active conformational state.     

Cellular Metabolites Enhance the Light Sensitivity of Arabidopsis Cryptochrome through Alternate Electron Transfer Pathways

Cryptochromes are blue light receptors with multiple signaling roles in plants and animals. Plant cryptochrome (cry1 and cry2) biological activity has been linked to flavin photoreduction via an electron transport chain comprising three evolutionarily conserved tryptophan residues known as the Trp triad. Recently, it has been reported that cry2 Trp triad mutants, which fail to undergo photoreduction in vitro, nonetheless show biological activity in vivo, raising the possibility of alternate signaling pathways. Here, we show that Arabidopsis thaliana cry2 proteins containing Trp triad mutations indeed undergo robust photoreduction in living cultured insect cells. UV/Vis and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy resolves the discrepancy between in vivo and in vitro photochemical activity, as small metabolites, including NADPH, NADH, and ATP, were found to promote cry photoreduction even in mutants lacking the classic Trp triad electron transfer chain. These metabolites facilitate alternate electron transfer pathways and increase light-induced radical pair formation. We conclude that cryptochrome activation is consistent with a mechanism of light-induced electron transfer followed by flavin photoreduction in vivo. We further conclude that in vivo modulation by cellular compounds represents a feature of the cryptochrome signaling mechanism that has important consequences for light responsivity and activation.     

An Arabidopsis protein closely related to Synechocystis cryptochrome is targeted to organelles

Cryptochromes (CRYs) are blue/UV-A photoreceptors related to the DNA repair enzyme DNA photolyase. They have been found in plants, animals and most recently in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis. Closely related to the Synechocystis cryptochrome is the Arabidopsis gene At5g24850. Here, we show that the encoded protein of At5g24850 binds flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD). It has no photolyase activity, and is likely to function as a photoreceptor. We have named it At-cry3 to distinguish it from the other Arbabidopsis cryptochrome homologues At-cry1 and At-cry2. At-cry3 carries an N-terminal sequence, which mediates import into chloroplasts and mitochondria. Furthermore, we show that At-cry3 binds DNA. DNA binding was also demonstrated for the Synechocystis cryptochrome, indicating that both photoreceptors could have similar modes of action. Based on the finding of a new cryptochrome class in bacteria and plants, it has been suggested that cryptochromes evolved before the divergence of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. However, our phylogenetic analyses are also consistent with an alternative explanation that the presence of cryptochromes in the plant nuclear genome is the result of dual horizontal gene transfer. That is, CRY1 and CRY2 genes may originate from an endosymbiotic ancestor of modern-day alpha-proteobacteria, while the CRY3 gene may originate from an endosymbiotic ancestor of modern-day cyanobacteria.