Craniofacial dimensions in children in rural Oaxaca, southern Mexico: secular change, 1968-2000

The objective of this investigation was to analyze the underlying cause(s) of secular changes in craniofacial dimensions among indigenous children in an isolated community in Oaxaca, southern Mexico, between 1968-2000. Subjects were schoolchildren resident in a rural, agrarian, Zapotec-speaking community in the Valley of Oaxaca, previously characterized as mildly-to-moderately undernourished with growth-stunting in 1968 and 1978. In 2000, children had experienced a secular increase in height compared with two prior growth surveys. Four craniofacial dimensions (head length, head breadth, and bizygomatic and bigonial breadths) were measured during anthropometric surveys of schoolchildren aged 6-13 years in 1968, 1978, and 2000. Cephalic and zygomandibular indices were calculated. Samples by survey were: 1968, 151 males and 157 females; 1978, 179 males and 184 females; and 2000, 180 males and 186 females. The analysis was based on a total of 1,037 children. Multivariate analysis of covariance was used to assess secular trend effects, with height, age, and age2 as covariates by sex. Over the interval of 32 years, significant secular changes occurred in craniofacial dimensions and one index: 1) head length was shorter in boys and girls; 2) bizygomatic breadth was narrower in boys and girls; 3) head breadth increased over time only among girls; 4) brachycephalization increased significantly in a linear manner among both sexes; and 5) the zygomandibular index decreased significantly only in boys. Thus, the cranial complex remodeled to a shorter head length, both relatively (brachycephalization) and absolutely. Remodeling over time also resulted in a narrower face, with the midface changing at about the same rate as the lower face (i.e., mandible). Secular changes are generally recognized as multifactorial. Changes in the cephalic index and cranium over time in schoolchildren in an isolated rural agrarian Zapotec-speaking community in the Valley of Oaxaca suggest that the underlying forces for the secular change are associated: 1) decreased food (maize) coarseness or grit content (masticatory stress), and 2) relaxed natural selection, resulting in 3) a greater role for developmental plasticity.     

Secular Trends in Measures of Cephalo-Facial Traits among Bengalee Boys Aged 7.0–16.0 Years from Kolkata between 1982–1983 and 1999–2001

While a large number of studies on secular trends have been performed on measures of stature, weight, trunk and limb dimensions, subcutaneous fatness and body composition, etc., less attention has been paid to cephalo-facial traits. This study reports on secular trends in five cephalo-facial traits (head length, head breadth, head circumference, bizygomatic breadth and morphological facial height) and two indices (cephalic index and facial index) in Bengalee Hindu boys between ages 7.0 and 16.0 years. The data set comes from two cross-sectional growth surveys carried out among the students of one particular Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) boys school with an interval of about 20 years (1982–1983 and 1999–2001). Identical protocol with respect to sampling, data collection, measuring technique and data analysis has been followed in both surveys. Except for morphological facial height (which showed negative secular trends), the other four cephalo-facial traits showed positive secular trends with varying magnitudes over the two decades. Cephalic index did not reveal any consistent pattern of change, while facial index showed a declining trend in the later survey.     

Results of the study of selected head measurements of Jena children]

Secular changes of head measurements (frontal breadth, bizygomatic breadth, bigonial breadth, auricular height, morphological facial height, lower face height) are analysed. The data are based on the Jena anthropological investigations of school children from 1975 and 1985. The inclusion of the data of the Jena longitudinal study carried out since 1985 allows an analysis of the further secular trend. Noticeable changes are proved in most of the analysed traits (frontal breadth, bigonial breadth, auricular height, morphological facial height, lower face height) between 1975 and 1985. The vertical measurements show greater percentage differences than the horizontal measurements, which, among other things, results in a relative narrowing of the face. In some head measurements (frontal breadth, bigonial breadth, auricular height) the trends continue after 1985. The secular trends show no obvious connection with the temporal acceleration of the dentition in the probands of the longitudinal study. However, a connection seems to be possible between the accelerated puberal growth spurt of the body height and the puberal growth spurt in some head dimensions.     

中国人和日本人在人种上的关系——颅骨测量性状的统计分析研究

本研究以北亚、东亚、东南亚和大洋洲一大片区域为背景探索日本人的起源和亲缘关系。结果显示日本旧石器时代港川人、绳文时代和现代人与大约同时期的华南居民有最接近的亲缘关系;从绳文时代到现代日本人的时代变化具有与后者(以及华北居民)相同的趋势。     

达斡尔族中小学生体质发育现状及20多年来的变化

本文报道了6~18岁1993名达斡尔族学生8项体质指标(身高、坐高、体重、肩宽、骨盆宽、胸围、腰围和臀围)的测量结果,并计算了10项体质指数。结果发现,达斡尔族在我国属体质发育较高的民族,并表现为一定的城乡差异;20多年来达斡尔族学生身高、体重、胸围全面增长,男女生身高最大增长年龄均提前约1岁左右,男生高年龄组身高和身体充实度增幅较大,但女生变化不大且肩宽和骨盆宽呈下降趋势。提示达斡尔族青少年体质发育表现为以生长突增提前为主的生长长期趋势,但女生高年龄组身高增长不明显、身体充实度有待提高,应采取营养和锻炼等措施促进其生长发育水平全面提高。     

The phenomenon of debrachycephalization in Jena school children

Head measurements are performed within the anthropological investigations of school children from Jena (Germany) since more than 5 decades (1944-1995). Here we report on secular changes of the head length, the head breadth and the cephalic index. The head circumference, measured in 1985 and in 1995, is included in the analysis. Head length and head breadth show a contrary development over the whole period: the average length of the head increases between the consecutive investigations, whereas the breadth of the head decreases continuously between the separate investigations. As a consequence the cephalic index decreases in boys and girls for about 8 units since 1944. In this way a secular change of the shape of the head in the sense of debrachycephalisation can be proved in Jena school children. The head circumference, however, remains nearly constant between 1985 and 1995. Possible causes of this process of debrachycephalisation are focussed in this article.     

Growth variation, final height and secular trend. Proceedings of the 17th Aschauer Soiree, 7th November 2009

Growth and body height have always been topics interesting to the public. In particular, the stupendous increase of some 15-19 cm in final adult height during the last 150 years in most European countries (the “secular trend”), the concomitant changes in body and head proportions, the tendency towards early onset of sexual maturation, the changes in the age when final height is being reached, and the very recent trend in body mass index, have generated much scientific literature. The marked plasticity of growth in height and weight over time causes problems. Child growth references differ between nations, they tend to quickly become out of date, and raise a number of questions regarding fitting methods, effects caused by selective drop-out, etc. New findings contradict common beliefs about the primary importance of nutritional and health related factors for secular changes in growth. There appears to be a broad age span from mid-childhood to early adolescence that is characterised by a peculiar insusceptibility. Environmental factors that are known to influence growth during this age span appear to have only little or no impact on final height. Major re-arrangements in height occur at an age when puberty has almost been completed and final height has almost been reached, implying that factors, which drive the secular trend in height, are limited to early childhood and late adolescence.     

Research on secular trends in auxology

Current status of research on secular trends in growth and maturation is considered from several perspectives. The need to define secular trends as positive, negative or absent is initially discussed. Positive secular trends, i.e., increases in size and earlier maturation, characterize the majority of the auxological literature. However, some populations have experienced negative secular trends or no trends. Positive secular trends and cessation of secular trends in stature and age at menarche are described for developed countries, followed by a brief discussion of secular changes in body proportions and composition. Data from developing countries illustrate all three types of secular trends. Some segments of the population show positive changes in size and age at menarche, while others show no evidence of secular change or negative secular trends. Finally, comparisons of estimated statures in earlier European populations suggest a negative secular trend, i.e., a decline in estimated stature from about the 11th to the 19th centuries, which is followed by a positive secular trend starting about the mid-19th century.     

Secular changes in craniofacial morphology of the Portuguese using geometric morphometrics

This study examines patterns of secular change in cranial morphology in the New Lisbon collection, a documented skeletal collection from Lisbon, Portugal with birth years from 1806 to 1954. This period represents a time when Lisbon was undergoing increased urbanization and population growth, as well as changes in mortality and fertility patterns. Previous studies from the U.S., Europe, and Japan have reported significant secular changes in cranial morphology over the past 200 years. In the current study, secular changes were analyzed using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics methods. The results from this study demonstrate a significant change in cranial morphology over the roughly 150-year period. Allometry was rejected as a causal factor of this change because there was no association found between temporal change and size. The pattern of temporal change is similar to that observed in other populations in the U.S., Europe, and Japan, including decreased facial breadth and a more inferiorly placed cranial base. This study, along with previous research, suggests a similar pattern of change occurs in genetically and geographically diverse populations experiencing modern environmental conditions. We argue that because the secular changes are focused in the cranial base, a region of the skull that experiences a relatively early growth curve, changes related to declines in childhood morbidity and mortality are likely important factors related to the observed changes.     

河南新乡地区儿童头面部测量

本文对河南省新乡地区汉族儿童（４－１３岁）头面部进行了测量,比较和分析了儿童体质发育与年龄增长的关系,据儿童头面部各指数数值大小分型,确定该地区汉族儿童面部的形态为：圆头型、高头型、狭头型、狭面型、狭鼻型。     

Finding from Asia, Australia, Europe, and North Amercia on secular change in mean height of children, youths, and young adults.

Studies conducted during the past century in Australia, Canada, Japan, Norway and the United States indicate that the magnitude of secular increase in mean height rose with advancing age from childhood to mid-adolescence. Comparisons for a period approximating two-thirds of a century yield average increases in mean height of 12.2 cm for female youths age 12 years, and 12.5 cm for male youths age 14 years; for the same calendar span, the amount of secular increase in mean height declines from mid-adolescence to early adulthood. Comparisons of Belgian females, spanning a period approximating 130 years, yield increases in mean height of 18.1 cm at age 12 years, 11.9 cm at age 16 years, and 3.7 cm in early adulthood. For a period of 90 years, increases obtained on United States White males are 14.8 cm at age 14 years, 8.8 cm at age 17 years, and 5.3 cm in early adulthood. These and other displayed findings show clearly that the search for causes of secular change should take particular account of a phenomenon widespread among human populations, i.e., the phenomenon of childhood and early adolescent growth in body height proceeding at a faster pace in recent decades than about a century ago.     

我国23个群体体质的聚类分析与主成分分析

作者选取13项指标（头长、头宽、额最小宽、面宽、形态面高、鼻宽、鼻高、口裂宽、两眼内宽、身高、坐高、肩宽、骨盆宽）对我国23个群体体质特征进行了聚类分析与主成分分析。研究结果显示：23个群体可分为南方组、北方组（含两个小组）和中间类群组。南方组与北方组的体质区别主要为体部的长度、宽度的差异。北方组各群体之间头面部指标值差异较大,南方组各群体之间头面部指标值则较为接近。     

Physical characteristics of Chinese Hakka

Using standard and internationally validated methods,86 anthropologic characteristics were determined in 650 male(305 from urban areas and 345 from rural areas) and 704 female(331 from urban areas,373 from rural areas) Chinese Hakka adults living in Guangdong and Jiangxi.The data were used to calculate 24 anthropologic indices,which were analyzed statistically.The physical characteristics of Hakka subjects were analyzed and compared with reference ethnic data.There were four main findings of this study.First,a small proportion of Hakka adults had an eye fold on the upper eyelid,but a large proportion had a mongoloid fold.The eye slits were narrow in most adults,had a medium nasal root height and straight bridges,and most of the external angles were prominent.The nasal base was upturned in most men.The distributions of the three types of nasal base in women were similar.The proportions of subjects with middle and high alae nasi heights were high and similar.Males with a maximum nostril diameter were mostly classified as transverse and oblique,while many women were classified as transverse and had relatively wide alae nasi.The round lobe type was the most common.Upper lip skin height was mostly classified as medium.Lips were classified as thin.The hair was black,eyes were brown,and the skin was yellowish.Second,the head length was long in male Hakka.The minimum frontal breadth,face breadth,lip height,and interocular breadth were similar to those of North-Asian populations.Meanwhile,head breadth,morphological facial height,nose breadth,mouth breadth,and nose height were similar to those of South-Asian populations.Head length was long in female Hakka.The minimum frontal breadth,face breadth,lip height,and interocular breadth were similar to those of North-Asian populations.Head breadth,nose breadth,and mouth breadth were similar to those of South-Asian populations.Third,the stature of male and female Hakka in urban and rural areas was classified as medium.The proportions of male and female Hakka classified as mesocephaly(length-breadth index of the head),hypsicephalic type,metriocephalic type(breadth-height index of the head) mesorrhiny,long trunk,subbrachyskelic type,broad shoulder breadth,and narrow distance between iliac crests were higher than those of other types.Finally,principal component analyses showed that the physical characteristics of Hakka were between those of South-Asian and North-Asian ethnic populations,but were generally closer to those of North-Asian populations in China.     

Gene flow and variation in stature and craniofacial dimensions among indigenous populations of southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras

Populations with histories of outbreeding tend to be taller even in the face of seemingly unchanged health and nutritional circumstances, while inbreeding generally results in a negative correlation between body dimensions and level of inbreeding. Populations that have experienced a positive secular trend in stature and maturation typically have histories of higher outbreeding rates in combination with improved nutritional, health, and economic conditions, suggesting a genetic-environment interaction. In general, Middle American Indians have not experienced a secular trend in stature, nor a substantial increase in their standard of living, but they have experienced varying degrees of admixture with Spanish and African populations since the Spanish Conquest. The relationship between estimated gene flow and variation in several anthropometric dimensions is thus considered in indigenous Mesoamerican populations. Available data on height, sitting height, craniofacial dimensions, and admixture rate of Indian populations from southern Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras were assembled from the literature. The population mean data on 3,371 adults from 23 populations for males and 18 for females were analyzed by regression with anthropometry as the dependent variable, and log10 of admixture as the independent variable. Admixture was less than or equal to 28.9% in this study and is suggestive of a primarily traditional Indian cultural and economic base. The results suggest that populations with higher admixture tend to be taller, and that the increase in stature is due to greater subischial length in both sexes. A decrease in nasion-menton height, and an increase in nasal breadth, nasal height, and the nasal index is suggested for the dimensions of the craniofacial complex.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Family resemblance for cranio-facial measurements in Velanti Brahmins from Andhra Pradesh, India

Maximum likelihood estimates of familial correlations are presented for 12 cranio-facial measurements taken on 399 nuclear families from Southern India. Marital resemblance is significantly different from zero for head circumference, head breadth, minimum frontal breadth, bizygomatic breadth, total facial height, and nasal height, but not for bigonial breadth, nose breadth, nose depth, or ear dimensions. All other familial correlations are significantly greater than zero except for the father-daughter correlation for nasal depth. Path analysis with a TAU transmission model with sex effects reveals that family resemblance for head circumference, head length, bigonial breadth, total facial height, and nasal height, but not for bigonial breadth, nose breadth, nose depth, or ear dimensions. All other familial correlations are significantly greater than zero except for the father-daughter correlation for nasal depth. Path analysis with a TAU transmission model with sex effects breadth, and sex effects in transmission were found for head breadth and nose dimensions. Sex effects in this sample may be due to the fact that different anthropometrists were used for male and female subjects.     

Influence of cranial deformation on facial morphology among prehistoric South Central Andean populations

Calculating biodistances among South American populations using cranial measurements is often hindered, as many available skeletal collections exhibit deformation. Acknowledging vault modifications, researchers have sought measurements in other regions which are unaffected by deformation. In the 1970s, a set of 10 "relatively" unaffected facial measurements was identified in Argentinean crania that later became the basis of numerous South American biodistance studies. These measurements include: minimum frontal breadth, bizygomatic breadth, orbit height, orbit breadth, palate breath, palate length, upper facial height, basion-prosthion length, nasal height, and nasal breadth. Palate length was excluded from the present analysis due to considerable measurement error. The suitability of these measurements in populations other than Argentineans has not been rigorously tested. Using a sample of 350 prehistoric crania from the Museo Arqueológico San Miguel de Azapa (MASMA, Arica, Chile), this project tested the hypothesis that these measurements are unaffected by either annular or tabular deformation. Results obtained from MANOVA analysis indicate this hypothesis cannot be fully supported. Among males, only 3 of the 9 measurements are unaffected by either form of deformation (palate breadth, basion-prosthion length, and nasal breadth), while analysis of females indicates that 4 of the 9 measurements remain unaltered (minimum frontal breadth, orbit breadth, basion-prosthion length, and nasal breadth). Additionally, analogous to the vault, facial measurements display patterns consistent with the deformation applied. Two implications can be drawn from this research: 1) previous studies using these measurements must be interpreted cautiously, and 2) researchers using these measurements must explicitly test their suitability in each population.     

Anthropometric studies in Brazilian Cayapo Indians

Results of 16 measurements and 7 indices obtained from 130 men and 156 women belonging to three populations of Brazilian Indians are reported. For both males and females the averages for stature and head breadth are in the middle of the distribution range of values observed in other South American tribes; those for head length and nasal height are relatively low but the averages for sitting height, calf circumference and minimum frontal breadth are high. As for the indices, in both sexes the cephalic and cephalofacial are medium, the Rohrer, jugomandibularis and facial low, and the nasal high when compared with other tribes. Morphological distances between the three Cayapo populations were estimated using Mahalanobis' D² statistic; they are smaller than those separating different tribes and are not the expected ones when the demographic variables of these groups and the geographic distances between them are considered. The amount of variability as expressed by the coefficient of variation and the prevailing pattern of sexual dimorphism are similar to those observed in other Indian populations.     

As to the influence of climate on head form.

In two quite different geographical regions--Mo?ambique and Hierro (an island of the Canaries)--observations have been made which point to an influence of climatic conditions on head dimensions: In localities of higher altitude or/and with colder climate maximum head breadth, minimum frontal breadth and auricular height proved to show higher dimensions compared with localities of milder (more hot) climate.