A brief history of conservation at the Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew

When Princess Augusta and Lord Bute, followed by Sir Joseph Banks and King George III, started gathering plants at Kew, conservation on the site can be said to have begun. Although the primary motive then was to assist the expansion of the British Empire and trade, rare plants were gathered and some became rare or extinct in the wild as their habitats were destroyed. The primary motive in the nineteenth century was not conservation, but the history of conservation at the Royal Gardens at Kew dates back to its very origins. Subsequent regimes at Kew maintained and added to the collections thereby adding to their conservation value. Many early collections are of species now listed within the IUCN categories of endangerment. Environmental awareness and concern had begun by the time that Professor Jack Heslop-Harrison became director and he was the first director actively to initiate specific conservation programmes such as seed banking and work on red data books. From then on conservation became an integral part of the work programme of Kew and the focus on conservation has increased with each subsequent director. This eventually led to the transformation of the embryonic seed banking activities into the Millennium Seed Bank, the largest and most important bank in the world for the conservation of the seeds of wild species. It currently holds just over ten percent of all seed plant species. Conservation at Kew over the past three decades has very much been a balance between ex situ work and in situ activities to help conservation in the overseas areas where Kew scientists have experience. Throughout the history of the gardens there has been a vital interest in economic botany that has developed from moving plants around the empire to much work on the sustainable use of plants and ecosystems thereby better equipping the institution to subsequently work on in situ conservation. Significant conservation activity at Kew has been possible because it is being supported by a solid research programme that includes such areas as systematics and molecular genetics and laboratories, a large herbarium and a large library. Kew has played an important role in stimulating conservation work elsewhere and such units as the Threatened Plants Unit of IUCN and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) have their roots in Kew. Among other important conservation initiatives have been the creation of a unit to work with the implementation of the CITES treaty on the trade of endangered plants and a legal unit to work on issues of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). There is no doubt that the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew is at the forefront of plant conservation.     

A 2013 linear sequence of legume genera set in a phylogenetic context — A tool for collections management and taxon sampling

The Leguminosae (or Fabaceae) currently comprises 751 genera. In most of the world's herbaria the genera are arranged by old, non-phylogenetic, classification systems which, while offering insights into morphological similarity, make no explicit statement as to evolutionary relationships. While classifications based on morphology are useful tools for plant identification, they do not offer the predictive value that phylogenetically based linear sequences provide. The legume collection of c.750,000 specimens in the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew was moved to a new building between 2010 and 2011, which presented the opportunity to reorganise the collection by a linear sequence based on a number of relatively comprehensive published legume phylogenies. The numbered linear sequence adopted at Kew has been updated and emended to include generic changes that have been published up to March 2013. The linear sequence, together with an alphabetical list of genera, is presented here to serve as a management tool for future taxon sampling and herbarium curation. The process used to develop the linear sequence and to rearrange the legume collection at Kew is discussed together with plans for future dissemination of changes to the sequence as new phylogenies are published and incorporated.     

Reduction in skin test reactions to inhaled allergens during a 12 weeks stay in the alpine climate

Fiftyfour allergic patients with bronchial asthma or obstructive lung disease were investigated at admission and discharge after a 3 months hospitalization period in the alpine valley Davos. An intracutaneous skin test procedure was carried out with 16 common inhalant allergens. Histamine 0.01 mg/ml was used as a positive control and a phosphate buffered saline with 0.03% HSA and 0.5% phenol were used as negative controls. A liophylized control for house dust mite was used for every patient on admission and discharge, in order to control loss of allergen potency of the vial. Furthermore, an additional freshly prepared vial of house dust mite allergen was analyzed after it was opened and stored at 4°C after 3 months. The wheal and flare reactions were calculated separately for the early reaction (at 15 minutes) and the late reaction (at 6 hours). The sum of wheal/histamine index and fare/histamine index were calculated for the early phase reactions and analyzed according two-tailed paired student's t tests. Using RAST inhibition, the liophylized house dust mite showed the same allergen concentration as in the fluid form. The 3 months old vial was analyzed and showed the same allergen concentration as was expected. Results for histamine reactions on admission and discharge showed no significant difference. Patients showed no reactions on the negative controls. Differences were found between skin test reactions on admission and discharge for the sum of early wheal reactions (p = 0.0001), and to certain allergen wheal such as house dust mite and some other common allergens. We conclude that during a 12 weeks stay in the alpine climate Davos, intracutaneous early wheal reactions to certain allergens are decreasing possibly reflecting a decreased exposure. The late reaction showed no significant change.     

The contribution of the Millennium Seed Bank Project to <Emphasis Type="Italic">ex situ</Emphasis> plant conservation in Chile

For a long time in situ conservation has been the main approach used to protect Chilean plant diversity. However, due to the high level of endemism of its flora (50%) and an increasing human impact on wild areas, ex situ conservation has become an urgent requirement to avoid the extinction of plant populations and species. Since 2001, the Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias (INIA), Chile, has been working in partnership with the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, (Kew) through the Millennium Seed Bank Project (MSB) with the objective of conserving 20% of the Chilean flora as seeds in long-term storage. This seed conservation effort has focussed mainly on the endangered and endemic plants of the Chilean drylands. Towards the end of the first phase of the MSB some 1482 seed collections representing 850 species and subspecies have been collected and safely preserved in the INIA Seed Base Bank and duplicated at Kew. Almost 70% of the total species collected are endemic to Chile and several of them are endangered. Additionally, seed germination research has been conducted for nearly 400 species and seed collections have been used to propagate several threatened species. Germination protocols have been published and disseminated online. Over 4,500 herbarium vouchers have been collected, largely duplicated at Kew and at the national herbarium in Chile. As a result of the inputs of INIA and the MSB, collaboration has been extended to other national stakeholders, mainly for plant taxonomy and seed collecting. In this context two training courses have been run for 70 staff/students. This training has contributed to the raising of general awareness of the need for the long-term protection of Chilean plant diversity and to demonstrate the key role that ex situ seed conservation can play in meeting this need.     

640. QUERCUS CASTANEIFOLIA

Quercus castaneifolia C.A. Mey. is described and illustrated from a tree growing at Kew. Its habitat, distribution, variation in the wild and its relationships with similar species, are discussed. A summary of the history and conservation of some of the oldest trees at Kew is included.     

Development of novel methods for the initiation of in vitro bryophyte cultures for conservation

The value of ex situ plant collections for conservation is increasingly recognised. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (RGB, Kew) has been pioneering methods for the development of such collections with the establishment of the Millennium Seed Bank and a project for the ex situ conservation of threatened UK bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, hornworts). A broad range of bryophytes are currently held in a tissue culture collection at RBG, Kew on sucrose-free ¼ or ½ Murashige &; Skoog or Knops minimal medium. The efficacy of the novel sterilising agent Sodium dichloroisocyanurate (NaDCC) was tested on a range of taxa, utilising a variety of bryophytic initiation material. Concentrations of 1% (w/v) for 3 min and 0.5% (w/v) for 2 min, without the addition of detergent, were found to be successful in initiating cultures from sporophytes and leafy gametophores respectively. Initiation of cultures from wild-collected sporophytes was more successful than from wild-collected gametophores. However, pre-culturing of gametophore material was found to enhance success rate of procedures. Transferring visibly clean material away from contamination post-initiation was also determined to increase protocol success rate. The ability of the biocide Plant Preservative Mixture^TM (PPM^TM) to control fungal and bacterial contamination in bryophyte protonemal cultures was also tested, but not found to be suitable. However, results obtained indicated that contamination may confer resistance on the moss against the phytotoxic effects of the biocide. Methods developed have wider applicability for the establishment of in vitro collections of other threatened plants.     

Alexander von Humboldt’s fungal collections at Kew

Collections of three fungal species described from Germany by Alexander von Humboldt have been rediscovered in the mycological herbarium at Kew. These collections are considered lectotypes of Boletus patella, B. venosus, and Clavaria aurea and are assigned to Postia stiptica, Physisporinus vitreus, and Calocera viscosa respectively. Humboldt’s Central & South American collections are also at Kew and a list of specimens is appended. Based on the rediscovered type collection, Favolus humboldtii is considered a synonym of Polyporus tenuiculus.     

Segregate families from the Euphorbiaceae

Segregate families from the Euphorbiaceae. Several families have been segregated from the Euphorbiaceae. Some of these are of long-standing, and are now generally accepted. Others are more recent, and somewhat controversial. Five such have recently been recognized at Kew, and are discussed here, as are two others which have not been so recognized.     

SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER IN THE KEW ARCHIVE

Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker was born in Halesworth, Suffolk in 1917. The second son of Sir William Jackson Hooker, Joseph Hooker would, throughout the course of his life, become one of the most famous and lauded scientists of his day. At its pinnacle, Joseph Hooker's career would see him hold the post of Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for 20 years (1865–1885), and be the first botanist after Joseph Banks to be elected President of the Royal Society between 1873 and 1878. His archives and letters, which are described here, are held in the Library, Art and Archives at Kew.     

Book Reviews

Book reviewed in this article:
Ericas of South Africa . D. Schuman & G. Kirsten in collaboration with E.G.H. Oliver
The European Discoveiy of the Indian Flora . Ray Desmond
A century of Kew plantsmen, a celebration of the Kew Guild . Desmond, Ray & Hepper, F. Nigel     

Botanic gardens and climate change: a review of scientific activities at the Royal Botanic Gardens,Kew

In 2009, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (UK) launched its Breathing Planet Programme. This 10 year programme seeks to re-align Kew’s work to develop plant-based solutions to the challenges of climate change. Further to the development of the Programme, Kew has undertaken a review of its science projects with relevance to mitigating the impacts of climate change on plant diversity and people. The review has allowed Kew to better understand its current strengths and weaknesses in this area in order to plan for the future. The findings of the review could be relevant for science programmes in other botanic gardens. Botanic gardens play a fundamental role in the conservation of biodiversity to mitigate climate change impacts. Knowledge and data on plant systematics, distribution and physiology is vital for modelling and monitoring the impacts of climate change, to help to identify plant species and habitats most at risk of losing their wild diversity. Kew’s Millennium Seed Bank Project will safeguard 25% of plant species by 2020, while in situ projects are improving the conservation of threatened habitats. One challenge is to make such activities relevant and useful to other scientists, conservation groups and policy makers working to address climate change. However, botanic gardens must also develop working practices and projects that specifically address the challenges of climate change. Kew and a global network of partners are doing this in a variety of ways, and examples will be presented in this paper.     

The breeding system of Ramosmania heterophylla–dioecy or heterostyly?

OWENS, S.J., JACKSON, A., MAUNDER, M., RUDALL, P.JOHNSON, M.A.T., 1993. The breeding system of Ramosmania heterophylla– dioecy or heterostyly?Ramosmania heterophylla (Cafe Marron), endemic to Rodrigues, Mauritius, is now almost extinct, since it appears to exist in the wild as a single plant, but has recently been successfully established at Kew by means of vegetative cuttings. Despite plenty of flowers on the Kew plants, attempts to set seed by manual pollination for seed banking purposes have failed. This investigation showed that pollen is viable and that embryo sacs appear fully developed. Lack of seed set is a result of the non-functional stigmas on short styles. The most likely explanation is that the last-known plant is male, although heterostyly or a mutant stylar developmental gene cannot be ruled out. The plant has a chromosome number of 2n= 22.     

Re-establishment of the lady's slipper orchid (Cypripedium calceolus L.) in Britain

The Sainsbury Orchid Conservation Project (SOCP), based in the Micropropagation Unit of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has worked for many years with English Nature, and the Species Recovery Programme in particular, in raising plants of the lady's slipper orchid for re-establishment. This is a collaborative venture with the involvement of a large number of organizations and individuals at national and local level.Cypripedium calceolusis one of Britain's rarest plants. Thought at one time to be extinct, its decline is due to overcollection by botanists for herbarium specimens and by gardeners and it is found now on a single, fragile, natural site. It has been wardened since 1970s because of concerns about long-term safety and is protected under Schedule 8 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981. Natural pollination has not been observed and hand pollination is carried out to ensure seed set. Some seed is scattered on site resulting in a few seedlings and the remaining capsules are sent to the Sainsbury Orchid Conservation Project. In addition, some plants of native origin are held in cultivation and molecular techniques are being carried out at Kew to ascertain how these are related. The best pollination strategy to increase genetic diversity is co-ordinated by English Nature and SOCP, as is the optimum collection time post-pollination to achieve maximum germination. Seedlings are propagated in the laboratory using immature green capsules sown on a range of nutrient media. No symbiotic fungus has yet been found for this species. Germination occurs after 6 weeks in the dark and the plants chilled when roots are well developed and shoots beginning to form. Plants potted up at Kew and near the native site have produced leaves and buds and extensive planting trials have now commenced. The main objective is to increase the number of localities whereCypripediumoccurs through re-establishment. As its decline is due to overcollection rather than habitat loss, many old sites have changed very little. Observation of continental populations is important in assessing suitability of potential sites as the extant clone may not be in optimum conditions. An initial planting trial on the wild site in winter 1989/90 resulted in a 75% survival rate of seedlings planted out. However, establishing seedlings is a long process and careful monitoring is required.     

Mexican alpine plants in the face of global warming: potential extinction within a specialized assemblage of narrow endemics

Alpine ecosystems occur under extreme climatic conditions and, as a result, house a unique and vulnerable biota. They are very scarce at tropical latitudes; in Mexico occur mainly along the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, where species richness is not high but narrow endemics stand out. We investigate the effects of climate change under hypothesized contrasting climate warming scenarios using ecological niche modeling of five microendemic alpine species. Occurrence data was obtained mainly from field trips, but herbaria were also examined. A total of 21 climatic and topographic variables, as well as individual selections of 12–16 variables were employed to construct models with Maxent and GARP. Depending on the number of occurrences, current models were validated with Partial-ROC or Jackknife procedures; and projections to 2050 and 2070 were made using two Representative Concentration Pathways and two Global Circulation Models. All species’ models showed a clear pattern of contraction under the explored scenarios; over 58 % of contemporary climatic distribution disappeared, suggesting that analyzed species face imminent extinction due to climatic habitat loss. The models are useful in representing the endemic component of Mexican alpine grassland by reciprocal correspondence in geographic distribution, and we consider it as a highly endangered ecosystem due to climate change, which is probably applicable to other tropical alpine ecosystems. The Pico de Orizaba volcano seems the best option to preserve due to its extension and elevation. However, further studies at finer scales are needed to improve in situ preservation and conservation strategies that include translocation, assisted migration and seed banking.     

Using the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation to guide conservation implementation in the UK Overseas Territories

The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC) was adopted by the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 2002. Staff at the Royal Botanic Gardens Kew were closely involved in the development of the GSPC and contributed to the development of several of the targets and the plan of work which resulted from its adoption. The GSPC has become a key document for Kew to help guide its conservation policy and implementation. The UK Overseas Territories (UKOTs) Programme is one of Kew’s cross-departmental science teams whose members work in collaboration with UKOT Governments and NGOs on conservation projects with the overall aim of supporting them in the implementation of the GSPC and in achieving its targets. The GSPC has provided an excellent overall framework to help shape conservation strategy, planning, and action in UKOTs. Like many small islands, UKOTs face a wide range of challenges in conserving their biodiversity and retaining ecosystem services whilst enabling development and maintaining livelihoods. Habitat loss and fragmentation, invasive alien species, development, and the increasing threat of global climate change present the most significant conservation challenges. At the heart of the UKOTs programme is a comprehensive work plan of specimen and data collection, mapping and capacity building in Territories plus facilitating access to historical specimens and data held at Kew. This enables progress towards achieving Targets 1, 2 and 3 (understanding and documenting plant diversity) and Targets 5, 7, 8 and 10 (conservation of plant diversity). All of these activities are accompanied by an extensive programme of capacity building to help support the development of technical skills and infrastructure to enable UKOTs to implement the GSPC (Targets 15 and 16) and the production of materials and interactions with schools and community groups to promote education and awareness-raising of plant conservation to achieve Target 14. UKOTs have been working with RBG Kew to prioritise activities in order to implement the GSPC and to identify those targets of most relevance locally. The main focus has been in documenting and understanding plant diversity and Targets 1 and 2 are close to completion for most UKOTs with good developments towards Target 3 for many. There is mixed progress with Objective 2 of the GSPC: conserving plant diversity. Excellent progress has been made with the ex situ Target 8, but more limited progress with the in situ targets and plant species still face many threats. Some Territories, most notably the Falkland Islands have made a good start with an Important Plant Areas programme. Although good progress has been made in documenting invasive species, there is major resource investment needed to implement the invasive species control strategies that have been identified. Good progress has been made with Target 14 and awareness is increasing, but there is a definite need for mainstreaming plant conservation issues. Some progress with Objective 5, building capacity for plant conservation, has been made, but a large ‘capacity gap’ remains and more trained personnel are needed with improved facilities and resources in order to implement the GSPC and meet its demanding targets. The GSPC has provided a unifying framework to enable conservation implementation across the UK’s Overseas Territories and will continue to do so in the post-2010 period.     

THE ORCHID PAINTINGS OF MARIANNE NORTH

Summary. The Marianne North Gallery at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew includes many orchid paintings. The orchids depicted in the paintings, and Marianne North's travels in search of them, are described.     

THE SICH AND OTHER EXPEDITIONS TO CHINA AND THE FAR EAST, 1982–2003

Recent collecting expeditions from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Quarryhill Botanic Garden, California and the Howick Arboretum in Northumberland, are listed and some of the noteworthy plants which have been introduced are described.     

THE JOHN BRADBY BLAKE DRAWINGS IN THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM,LONDON: JOSEPH BANKS PUTS THEM TO WORK

In the last quarter of the 18th century, Joseph Banks came into possession of a set of botanically accurate, western‐influenced, drawings of Chinese plants, executed in Canton by a Chinese artist and supervised by John Bradby Blake, an East India Company supercargo. Banks realized that these drawings, now in the Natural History Museum, London, would help his collectors in Canton accurately identify the Chinese species he sought as living plants for the Royal Gardens at Kew. Banks commissioned a collector's manual whose illustrations were based on the Blake drawings. In the early 19th century, William Kerr used this manual (now unfortunately lost) to continue the Blake practice – these drawings are at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. John Reeves, many of whose drawings are at the Royal Horticultural Society, used Kerr's commissions to produce the next generation of botanical art in Canton.