Effect of root exudation on VA mycorrhizal infection at early stages of plant growth

Summary No relationship between the degree of VA mycorrhizal infection and total sugar content in root exudates of several plant species of different degree of mycorrhizal susceptibility were observed during the early stages of plant growth. Even more, the non host plants tested showed higher sugar exudation ability, when expressed as the amount exuded per g of root, at these early periods of their growth, than plants susceptible to mycorrhizal infection.Root exudates from host and non host plants influenced similarly the percentage of spore germination and number of secondary spores under controlled conditions.     

Root carbon inputs to the rhizosphere stimulate extracellular enzyme activity and increase nitrogen availability in temperate forest soils

The exudation of carbon (C) by tree roots stimulates microbial activity and the production of extracellular enzymes in the rhizosphere. Here, we investigated whether the strength of rhizosphere processes differed between temperate forest trees that vary in soil organic matter (SOM) chemistry and associate with either ectomycorrhizal (ECM) or arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. We measured rates of root exudation, microbial and extracellular enzyme activity, and nitrogen (N) availability in samples of rhizosphere and bulk soil influenced by four temperate forest tree species (i.e., to estimate a rhizosphere effect). Although not significantly different between species, root exudation ranged from 0.36 to 1.10 g C m^?2 day^?1, representing a small but important transfer of C to rhizosphere microbes. The magnitude of the rhizosphere effects could not be easily characterized by mycorrhizal associations or SOM chemistry. Ash had the lowest rhizosphere effects and beech had the highest rhizosphere effects, representing one AM and one ECM species, respectively. Hemlock and sugar maple had equivalent rhizosphere effects on enzyme activity. However, the form of N produced in the rhizosphere varied with mycorrhizal association. Enhanced enzyme activity primarily increased amino acid availability in ECM rhizospheres and increased inorganic N availability in AM rhizospheres. These results show that the exudation of C by roots can enhance extracellular enzyme activity and soil-N cycling. This work suggests that global changes that alter belowground C allocation have the potential to impact the form and amount of N to support primary production in ECM and AM stands.     

Atmospheric CO2 enrichment and drought stress modify root exudation of barley

Rising CO₂ concentrations associated with drought stress is likely to influence not only aboveground growth, but also belowground plant processes. Little is known about root exudation being influenced by elements of climate change. Therefore, this study wanted to clarify whether barley root exudation responds to drought and CO₂ enrichment and whether this reaction differs between an old and a recently released malting barley cultivar. Barley plants were grown in pots filled with sand in controlled climate chambers at ambient (380 ppm) or elevated (550 ppm) atmospheric [CO₂] and a normal or reduced water supply. Root exudation patterns were examined at the stem elongation growth stage and when the inflorescences emerged. At both dates, root exudates were analyzed for different compounds such as total free amino acids, proline, potassium, and some phytohormones. Elevated [CO₂] decreased the concentrations in root exudates of some compounds such as total free amino acids, proline, and abscisic acid. Moreover, reduced water supply increased proline, potassium, electric conductivity, and hormone concentrations. In general, the modern cultivar showed higher concentrations of proline and abscisic acid than the old one, but the cultivars responded differentially under elevated CO₂. Plant developmental stage had also an impact on the root exudation patterns of barley. Generally, we observed significant effects of CO₂ enrichment, watering levels, and, to a lesser extent, cultivar on root exudation. However, we did not find any mitigation of the adverse effects of drought by elevated CO₂. Understanding the multitude of relationships within the rhizosphere is an important aspect that has to be taken into consideration in the context of crop performance and carbon balance under conditions of climate change.     

富钾基因型籽粒苋主要根系分泌物及其对土壤矿物态钾的活化作用

通过试验,研究了2种供K水平对籽粒苋(Amaranthus spp.)富K基因型和一般基因型根系分泌物含量变化的影响,以及在低K胁迫时3个生长期两类基因型主要根系分泌物含量的变化特点,模拟了籽粒苋根系分泌物对土壤矿物态钾的活化作用.结果表明,籽粒苋根系分泌物中可溶性糖、氨基酸和有机酸含量随供K水平的升高而降低,且富K基因型根系分泌物中3种物质的分泌量始终大于一般基因型;在正常供K条件下,两基因型根系分泌能力相近,但在低K处理时,前者显著高于后者,差异显著;在2种供K水平下,根系有机酸分泌量在3种分泌物中占绝对优势,分别是可溶性糖和氨基酸分泌量的几十倍和几百倍.籽粒苋生长到50 d时,一般基因型根系可溶性糖、氨基酸和有机酸的分泌量较40 d时迅速降低.富K基因型根系分泌物中可溶性糖、氨基酸和有机酸含量在3个生长时期均大于一般基因型,且随着生长时间的延长,两基因型间可溶性糖、氨基酸和有机酸含量的差异明显增大.两类基因型在3个生长时期均以分泌有机酸为主,其占总分泌量的93%以上.籽粒苋根系分泌物处理后的土壤速效钾含量均高于清水对照处理,富K基因型在低K胁迫时的根系分泌物对土壤K的活化作用明显大于一般基因型.     

常绿阔叶林外生和丛枝菌根树种细根形态和构型性状对氮添加的可塑性响应

以中亚热带常绿阔叶林外生菌根树种罗浮栲和丛枝菌根树种木荷为研究对象,采用根袋法进行野外原位氮添加试验,研究了细根形态性状(比根长、比表面积、组织密度、平均根直径)和构型性状(分枝数、分枝比、根长增长速率、根尖密度、分枝密度),分析不同菌根树种细根形态和构型性状对氮沉降的响应.结果表明:随序级增加,外生和丛枝菌根树种细根...     

根系功能性状对干瘠立地适应的种间差异——以北京石质山地主要观赏树种为例

分析干瘠立地中不同树种根功能性状的变化及差异,研究不同树种对干瘠环境的适应对策。试验材料为林龄、林分密度相对一致的石质山区主要观赏树种（黄栌、山桃、栓皮栎）,采用挖掘法获取树木细根,测定细根形态参数。根据田间持水量和石砾含量分别设置4个干瘠梯度（轻度、中度、重度、极度）,对比分析北京干瘠地3种树种根功能性状,探讨干瘠立地中不同树种根系形态的差异及其对特殊生境的适应。结果表明：干旱、瘠薄均对树木的根功能性状产生影响,但对不同性状以及不同树种的影响程度具有差异,其中对山桃根系的影响最大;3种树种根功能性状在不同干瘠等级下存在显著变化,同一性状的变化因树种不同而异。从轻度到极度干旱,3种树种的RL均逐渐减小,但是黄栌变化不显著;黄栌、栓皮栎RTD随干瘠的加剧而减小,而山桃随干瘠的加剧而增加;黄栌和山桃SRL随干旱、瘠薄的加剧,表现出一致的规律,即从轻度到极度,其SRL随即减小,而栓皮栎SRL随干旱、瘠薄的加剧而增大;随干瘠的加剧,黄栌SRA显著减小,山桃、栓皮栎SRA随干瘠的加剧而增大。树木对干瘠环境的变化都有一定的响应能力及适应对策,能够通过自身的形态变化来适应不断变化的环境,但不同物种对干瘠环境变化的适应途径不同,通过权衡碳分配、碳消耗采取了相应的生态适应策略,不同树种间存在明显差异。本研究3种树种中,黄栌在干瘠环境下根系性状变化不显著,耐干瘠能力较强;干瘠胁迫对山桃根系性状影响显著,山桃通过主动调节根系形态变化来适应不断变化的环境,具有较强的抗干瘠能力;栓皮栎的细根数量多,吸收土壤水分、养分能力较强,能够在干瘠环境中快速生长。     

A catastrophic tropical drought kills hydraulically vulnerable tree species

Drought‐related tree mortality is now a widespread phenomenon predicted to increase in magnitude with climate change. However, the patterns of which species and trees are most vulnerable to drought, and the underlying mechanisms have remained elusive, in part due to the lack of relevant data and difficulty of predicting the location of catastrophic drought years in advance. We used long‐term demographic records and extensive databases of functional traits and distribution patterns to understand the responses of 20–53 species to an extreme drought in a seasonally dry tropical forest in Costa Rica, which occurred during the 2015 El Niño Southern Oscillation event. Overall, species‐specific mortality rates during the drought ranged from 0% to 34%, and varied little as a function of tree size. By contrast, hydraulic safety margins correlated well with probability of mortality among species, while morphological or leaf economics spectrum traits did not. This firmly suggests hydraulic traits as targets for future research.     

镉胁迫下小麦根系分泌物的变化

通过水培和砂培两种方法 ,研究了镉胁迫下小麦 ( Triticum aestivm L.)根系分泌物变化。通过研究镉对小麦根系分泌氨基酸和糖 ,根系分泌其它一些次生代谢物质等的影响 ,以及根系分泌物对蔬菜种子萌发的影响 ,探讨镉胁迫下植物根系的生理生态效应。研究结果表明 :镉胁迫下 ,小麦根系分泌物无论在量上还是质上都有变化。镉胁迫下根系分泌的电解质、糖类、氨基酸以及其它一些次生代谢物质都有所变化 ,但变化情况有差异。电解质外渗率、糖类随 Cd2 + 浓度升高而增加 ,在低浓度 Cd2 + 作用下 ( 0 .5 mg/ L) ,随处理浓度的升高 ,氨基酸分泌量增加 ;当处理浓度高于相应浓度时 ,氨基酸分泌量随浓度升高而减少。随 Cd2 + 浓度升高 ,次生代谢物分泌种类减少。这说明小麦通过改变根分泌作用而缓解镉危害。由于根系分泌次生代谢物的活动比较复杂 ,因而根系的分泌作用有待于进一步研究。根系分泌物中可能含有某些物质抑制萝卜、白菜种子萌发 ,这是涉及到植物他感作用的问题 ,值得并有待于进一步研究。初步分析小麦根系在不同的环境中对镉胁迫的响应方式 ,为以后根分泌物的深入研究提供了一定的思路 ,也为镉污染区农作物的合理栽培提供新的参考资料。     

QTL mapping of root hair and acid exudation traits and their relationship to phosphorus uptake in common bean

The relationship between root-hair growth, acid exudation and phosphorus (P) uptake as well as the quantitative trait loci (QTLs) associated with these traits were determined for a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from the cross of two contrasting common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) genotypes, DOR364 and G19833, which were grown in solution culture and under field conditions with low-P availability. In the solution-culture study, root-hair density, root-hair length, H⁺ exudation and total acid exudation were measured. Substantial genotypic variability was observed for these traits and their response to P availability. The P-efficient parent G19833 had greater root-hair density, longer root-hair length, and greater exudation of H⁺ and total acid than the P-inefficient genotype DOR364. These traits segregated continuously in the RIL population, with obvious tendency of trait transgression. Genetic analysis revealed that the root traits measured had various heritabilities, with h _b ² ranging from 43.24 to 86.70%. Using an integrated genetic map developed for the population, a total of 19 QTLs associated with root hair, acid exudation and P-uptake traits were detected on 8 linkage groups. P uptake in the field was positively correlated with total acid exudation, basal root-hair length, and basal root-hair density. Acid-exudation traits were intercorrelated, as were root-hair traits. Total acid exudation was positively correlated with basal root-hair density and length. Linkage analysis revealed that some of the root-trait QTLs were closely linked with QTLs for P uptake in the field. We propose that marker-assisted selection (MAS) might be a feasible alternative to conventional screening of phenotypic root traits.     

Effect of root exudates of mycorrhizal tomato plants on microconidia germination of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici

The effect of root exudates from mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal tomato plants on microconidia germination of the tomato pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici was tested. Microconidia germination was enhanced in the presence of root exudates from mycorrhizal tomato plants. Tomato plants were colonised by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus fasciculatum, indicating that alterations of the exudation pattern depended on the degree of root AM colonisation. Testing the exudates from plants with a high and a low P level revealed that the alterations of the root exudates from mycorrhizal plants, resulting in a changed effect on microconidia germination, are not due to an improved P status of mycorrhizal plants.     

Enhanced root exudation stimulates soil nitrogen transformations in a subalpine coniferous forest under experimental warming

Despite the perceived importance of exudation to forest ecosystem function, few studies have attempted to examine the effects of elevated temperature and nutrition availability on the rates of root exudation and associated microbial processes. In this study, we performed an experiment in which in situ exudates were collected from Picea asperata seedlings that were transplanted in disturbed soils exposed to two levels of temperature (ambient temperature and infrared heater warming) and two nitrogen levels (unfertilized and 25 g N m^?2 a^?1). Here, we show that the trees exposed to an elevated temperature increased their exudation rates I (μg C g^?1 root biomass h^?1), II (μg C cm^?1 root length h^?1) and III (μg C cm^?2 root area h^?1) in the unfertilized plots. The altered morphological and physiological traits of the roots exposed to experimental warming could be responsible for this variation in root exudation. Moreover, these increases in root‐derived C were positively correlated with the microbial release of extracellular enzymes involved in the breakdown of organic N (R² = 0.790; P = 0.038), which was coupled with stimulated microbial activity and accelerated N transformations in the unfertilized soils. In contrast, the trees exposed to both experimental warming and N fertilization did not show increased exudation rates or soil enzyme activity, indicating that the stimulatory effects of experimental warming on root exudation depend on soil fertility. Collectively, our results provide preliminary evidence that an increase in the release of root exudates into the soil may be an important physiological adjustment by which the sustained growth responses of plants to experimental warming may be maintained via enhanced soil microbial activity and soil N transformation. Accordingly, the underlying mechanisms by which plant root‐microbe interactions influence soil organic matter decomposition and N cycling should be incorporated into climate‐carbon cycle models to determine reliable estimates of long‐term C storage in forests.     

中国亚热带不同菌根树种的根叶形态学性状特征与生长差异: 以江西新岗山为例

探究植物功能性状的种内和种间变异不仅有助于揭示植物对环境的适应, 也能够反映植物的生态策略, 但不同菌根类型树木生长过程中根叶形态学功能性状的适应策略仍有待探究。本研究依托中国亚热带森林生物多样性与生态系统功能实验研究平台(BEF-China)选取7种丛枝菌根(AM)树木和7种外生菌根(EM)树木的纯林, 测定各个树种的比叶面积、叶干物质含量、比根长、根系直径、树高生长速率、地径生长速率及细根生物量等根叶形态学功能性状和生长指标, 探讨了两种菌根类型树种间的根叶形态学特征的差异。结果表明: 与AM树种相比, EM树种具有较小的比叶面积、吸收根平均直径和生长速率, 但具有更大的叶干物质含量; 两种菌根树种之间的比根长和细根生物量无显著差异。比叶面积、叶干物质含量、树高生长速率、地径生长速率和细根生物量等功能性状及生长指标在不同菌根类型、树种及二者的交互作用中均存在显著差异; 且树种、根功能型、菌根类型及三者之间的交互作用均对根功能性状有显著影响。EM树种地上指标的种内变异均大于种间变异, 而AM树种地上指标的种内和种间变异程度类似; 但两种菌根树种细根生物量的种间变异均大于种内变异。尽管两种菌根树种地上部分生长速率较快通常表现为较低的叶干物质含量, 但AM树种通常拥有较高的吸收根比根长, 而EM树种拥有较粗的运输根平均直径。吸收根比根长越低, 两类菌根树种的细根生物量就越多。由此可见, 根叶功能性状对植物地上部分的生长具有一定的协同效应, 其中运输根主要在EM树种地上生长过程中发挥重要作用, 吸收根主要与AM树种的地上部分生长有关; 但两类菌根树种的地下细根生物量均与吸收根有关。     

植物根系分泌及其在林业中的意义

本文简要介绍了植物根系分泌物的成分、数量, 充分讨论了根系分泌的影响因素、根系分泌的部位及根系分泌物在土壤中扩散的范围, 并阐明了树木通过根系分泌对土壤营养条件、土壤微生物及其它相邻植物均有显著的影响。     

Investment in Fine Roots and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Decrease During Succession in Three Brazilian Ecosystems

The functional groups of plants that characterize different phases of succession are expected to show differences in root distribution, fine‐root traits and degrees of association with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. The relationship involving fine‐root traits and AM fungi that regulate the nutrient acquisition potential among different plant functional groups are still not well understood. We assessed fine‐root morphology, AM fungal variables and soil fertility in grassland, secondary forest and mature forest in Atlantic, Araucaria and Pantanal ecosystems in Brazil. Soil cores were collected at 0–10 and 10–20 cm depths. Fine roots were extracted from soil by sieving and root morphological traits and AM colonization were determined. The AM spores were extracted from soil and counted. In all ecosystems, soil fertility, fine‐root mass and root diameter increased with the succession, while root length, specific root length, root‐hair length, root‐hair incidence, AM colonization and AM spore density decreased. These results suggest that plant species from early stages of tropical succession with inherent rapid growth invest in fine roots and maintain a high degree of AM colonization in order to increase the capacity for nutrient acquisition. Conversely, fine root morphological characteristics and low degree of AM colonization exhibited by plants of the later stages of succession lead toward a low nutrient uptake capacity that combine with their typical low growth rates. Abstract in Portuguese is available at http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/loi/btp .     

Effects of drought on non-mycorrhizal and mycorrhizal maize: changes in the pools of non-structural carbohydrates, in the activities of invertase and trehalase, and in the pools of amino acids and imino acids

To study the response of non-mycorrhizal and mycorrhizal maize plants to drought, the changes in the pools of non-structural carbohydrates and amino acids were analysed in leaves and roots of two maize cvs. Plants well colonized by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus mosseae (Nicol. & Gerd.) (60% of root length infected) and comparable non-mycorrhizal plants were subjected to moderate drought stress by reducing the water supply. This stress induced a conspicuous increase in the trehalose pool in the mycorrhizal roots, probably because it was accumulated by the fungal symbiont. Furthermore, glucose and fructose were accumulated in leaves and roots of non-mycorrhizal plants but not in the mycorrhizal ones. Starch disappeared completely from the leaves of both mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants in response to drought. Activities of soluble acid invertase and trehalase were also measured. Acid invertase activity increased during drought in the leaves of both non-mycorrhizal and mycorrhizal plants whilst in the roots it was unaffected in non-mycorrhizal plants and decreased in the mycorrhizal ones. Without drought stress, trehalase activity was considerably higher in the leaves and roots of mycorrhizal plants than in those of non-mycorrhizal plants. It increased conspicuously during drought, primarily in the leaves of non-mycorrhizal plants. A drought-induced accumulation of amino acids as well as imino acids was found in roots and leaves of both mycorrhizal and non-mycorrhizal plants; leaves of mycorrhizal plants accumulated more imino acids than those of non-mycorrhizal ones. Our results show that drought stress and the presence of a mycorrhizal fungus have a considerable effect on carbon partitioning, imino acid and amino acid accumulation in maize plants.     

亚热带典型树种根毛特征及其与共生真菌的关系

根毛和共生真菌增加了吸收面积,提高了植物获取磷等土壤资源的能力。由于野外原位观测根表微观结构较为困难,吸收细根、根毛、共生真菌如何相互作用并适应土壤资源供应,缺乏相应的数据和理论。该研究以受磷限制的亚热带森林为对象,选取了21种典型树种,定量了根毛存在情况、属性变异,分析了根毛形态特征与共生真菌侵染率、吸收细根功能属性之间的关系,探讨了根表结构对低磷土壤的响应和适应格局。结果表明:1)在亚热带森林根毛不是普遍存在的, 21个树种中仅发现7个树种存有根毛, 4个为丛枝菌根(AM)树种, 3个为外生菌根(ECM)树种。其中,马尾松(Pinus massoniana)根毛出现率最高,为86%;2)菌根类型是理解根-根毛-共生真菌关系的关键,AM树种根毛密度与共生真菌侵染率正相关,但ECM树种根毛直径与共生真菌侵染率负相关; 3) AM树种根毛长度和根毛直径、ECM树种根毛出现率与土壤有效磷含量呈负相关关系。该研究揭示了不同菌根类型树种根毛-共生真菌-根属性的格局及相互作用,为精细理解养分获取策略奠定了基础。     

Fine root foraging strategies in Norway spruce forests across a European climate gradient

Fine root acclimation to different environmental conditions is crucial for growth and sustainability of forest trees. Relatively small changes in fine root standing biomass (FRB), morphology or mycorrhizal symbiosis may result in a large change in forest carbon, nutrient and water cycles. We elucidated the changes in fine root traits and associated ectomycorrhizal (EcM) fungi in 12 Norway spruce stands across a climatic and N deposition gradient from subarctic‐boreal to temperate regions in Europe (68°N–48°N). We analysed the standing FRB and the ectomycorrhizal root tip biomass (EcMB, g m^?2) simultaneously with measurements of the EcM root morphological traits (e.g. mean root length, root tissue density (RTD), N% in EcM roots) and frequency of dominating EcM fungi in different stands in relation to climate, soil and site characteristics. Latitude and N deposition explained the greatest proportion of variation in fine root traits. EcMB per stand basal area (BA) increased exponentially with latitude: by about 12.7 kg m^?2 with an increase of 10° latitude from southern Germany to Estonia and southern Finland and by about 44.7 kg m^?2 with next latitudinal 10° from southern to northern Finland. Boreal Norway spruce forests had 4.5 to 11 times more EcM root tips per stand BA, and the tips were 2.1 times longer, with 1.5 times higher RTD and about 1/3 lower N concentration. There was 19% higher proportion of root tips colonized by long‐distance exploration type forming EcM fungi in the southern forests indicating importance of EcM symbiont foraging strategy in fine root nutrient acquisition. In the boreal zone, we predict ca. 50% decrease in EcMB per stand BA with an increase of 2 °C annual mean temperature. Different fine root foraging strategies in boreal and temperate forests highlight the importance of complex studies on respective regulatory mechanisms in changing climate.     

N添加对西南亚高山红桦林根系分泌物及其介导的养分转化过程的影响

目前缺乏对根系分泌物通量以及相关生态后果对不同氮(N)沉降水平响应方向和幅度的深入理解,该研究以西南亚高山典型的红桦(Betula albosinensis)林为研究对象,通过野外原位N添加试验模拟不同氮沉降水平(对照组,0 kg·hm^-2·a(-1);低氮处理,25 kg·hm^-2·a(-1);高氮处理,50 kg·hm^-2·a(-1)),分析了红桦林根系分泌物C输入通量及其介导的根际土壤养分循环过程对不同N添加水平的差异化响应,试图揭示不同N添加处理对红桦根系分泌物C输入通量及其介导的土壤养分转化过程的影响。结果表明：(1)N添加显著抑制了红桦林根系分泌物C输入速率(其中低氮(N25)条件下单位根生物量根系分泌速率均值降低约14.87%)和年C输入通量(低氮条件下降低了约45.01%)(P<0.05),其高氮处理的抑制效应更强。(2)N添加显著抑制了红桦林N矿化速率及其相关的微生物胞外酶活性(P<0.05),并显著降低了其根际效应;N沉降显著抑制了根系分泌物C输入通量及其介导的土壤养分转化过程,并且这种抑...     

Variation in root system traits among African semi‐arid savanna grasses: Implications for drought tolerance

In arid to semi‐arid grasslands and savannas, plant growth, population dynamics, and productivity are consistently and strongly limited by soil water and nutrient availability. Adaptive traits of the root systems of grasses in these ecosystems are crucial to their ability to cope with strong water and/or nutrient limitation and the increasing drought stress associated with ecosystem degradation or projected climate change. We studied 18 grass species in semi‐arid savanna of the Kalahari region of Botswana to quantify interspecific variation in three important root system traits including root system architecture, rhizosheath thickness and mycorrhizal colonization. Drought‐tolerant species and shorter‐lived species showed greater rhizosheath thickness and fine root development but lower mycorrhizal colonization compared to later successional climax grasses and those characteristic of wetter sites. In addition, there was a significant positive correlation between root fibrousness index and rhizosheath thickness among species and a weak negative correlation between root fibrousness index and mycorrhizal colonization. These patterns suggest that an extensive fine root system and rhizosheath development may be important complementary traits of grasses coping with drought conditions, the former aiding in the acquisition of water by the grass plant and the latter aiding in water uptake and retention, and reducing water loss in the rhizosphere. Within species, both rhizosheath development and mycorrhizal colonization were significantly greater in a wet year than in a year with below‐average precipitation. The observed patterns suggest that the primary benefit of rhizosheath development in African savanna grasses is improved drought tolerance and that it is a plastic trait that can be adjusted annually to changing environmental conditions. The functioning of mycorrhizal symbiosis is likely to be relatively more important in infertile savannas where nutrient limitation is higher relative to water limitation.     

Evaluation of a novel tool for sampling root exudates from soil-grown plants compared to conventional techniques

The release of low molecular weight (LMW) organic compounds (e.g. organic acids, amino acids, sugars, etc.) by living plant roots significantly contributes to the development of chemical, physical as well as microbial rhizosphere gradients. Suitable and accurate sampling procedures are crucial for enhancing our understanding of the dynamics of related rhizosphere processes. Here we compare common sampling techniques with a novel tool for root exudate collection that allows non-destructive and repetitive sampling from soil-grown roots. Root exudates from Zea mays L. were collected using the following techniques: (i) hydroponic growth and sampling, (ii) soil growth and hydroponic sampling and (iii) rhizoboxes fitted with a novel in situ root exudate collecting tool. Furthermore, rhizosphere soil solution for the analysis of exudates and microbial metabolites was sampled using micro-suction cups (iv). The effect of different sampling solutions (deionised water and 0.5 mM CaCl₂) on organic acid and amino acid exudation patterns was also investigated. The novel exudate collecting tool was successfully tested for root exudate sampling. Results showed that particularly amino acid exudation rates were significantly affected by growth conditions and sampling procedures, while organic acid exudation patterns varied less across the different sampling setups. Despite qualitative and quantitative differences, exudation rates were in the same order of magnitude across the different sampling procedures. Soil solution concentrations obtained from micro-suction-cup sampling at defined distance to the root surface showed no distinct gradient, highlighting the importance of soil microorganisms in regulating the soil solution concentration of LMW C compounds either via microbial degradation or the release of microbial metabolites. The exudate collector offers new opportunities to assess root exudation rates and composition from soil-grown plants and thus enhances our knowledge of fundamental rhizosphere processes.